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Peer collaboration benefits second language (L2) learning and is a cornerstone of effective classroom instruction. It is, therefore, essential for teachers to consider how tasks work to promote peer collaboration and thus maximize learning. These considerations concern the task type, a task's inherent characteristics, and possible ways of task implementation to achieve peer collaboration. The body of research within the Task-based language teaching (TBLT) framework has shown that task-based instruction provides an optimal environment for second language acquisition. However, with regard to young learners (YLs), children from 5 to 12 years of age, the role of tasks in fostering peer collaboration in FL classrooms is not clear-cut. Grounded in research on task-based peer interaction among YLs, this article outlines how tasks enhance peer collaboration in foreign language (FL) classrooms.

Writing is hard for students who are learning English; they often find it challenging to transform what is on their mind in writing. Therefore, this study examined the relationship between the writing test and assessment writing through argumentative writing. Data was analyzed using the correlation test to determine the close relationship between independent and dependent variables. This study involved 100 students from the Department of English Education at the University of Riau, Indonesia. The results showed that the writing test and assessment writing was closely related, as evidenced by the influence and significance between the writing test and assessment writing, which was tested through argumentative writing. The results revealed that the writing test and assessment writing have similar results. Overall, both variables are equally important and related.

The purpose of this paper is to highlight the role that technology plays in the education of students with hearing impairments. The paper delves into ambitious topics like assistive technologies and languages, access and inclusion, teacher education and practice, and the challenges encountered. The research employed a quantitative approach, selecting 172 teachers from Punjab's special education department as a study sample using a simple random technique. Primary data was collected using a self-developed questionnaire. The collected data was, therefore, analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Overall, the findings presented a positive outlook, demonstrating how technology enhances the learning experience, communication, and academic performance. The study clearly highlights several challenges, including insufficient specialized tools, inadequate teacher training, financial constraints, and more. The study highlights the significance of precision, aggregative processes, and teamwork in addressing the challenges of limited resources, teachers' preparedness, and accessibility. recommendations include incorporating specialized digital tools, focusing on continuous teacher professional learning, requesting funding, and creating awareness and/or cultural shifts. Such findings provide an understanding of the possible pros and cons of technology integration, which will help educators create an inclusive learning environment for students with hearing impairments.

Social justice language education (SJLE) explores the ways in which language classrooms can be transformed to disrupt the existing oppressive policies and practices in schools and the society at large (Ortaçtepe Hart & Martel, 2020; Ortaçtepe Hart, 2023; Ortega, 2021). As an approach within SJLE, dramatizing children's literature can raise the awareness of learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) of social injustices across the world, help them voice their own experiences in the class, and contribute to their language development (Caldas, 2018; García-Mateus, 2021; Gualdron & Castillo, 2018; Koss & Daniel, 2018). Focusing on the intersections of drama, children's literature, and SJLE, this qualitative case study explored a) a preservice EFL teacher's trajectory as a social justice educator, and b) the affordances of dramatizing children's literature on developing young learners' English language skills and awareness of social justice issues. Three picture storybooks, "Paper Bag Princess," "William's Doll," and "Amazing Grace," were chosen and scripted for drama. Data were elicited through preservice teachers' observation notes and reflections as well as through semi-structured interviews with students. The results showed that dramatizing children's literature helped EFL young learners challenge their stereotypical beliefs regarding gender roles, gender inequalities, and racism. It also fostered their language development, especially in pronunciation (e.g., producing sounds), speaking (e.g., pitch and melody), and vocabulary by creating an entertaining and safe environment in which they could engage in contextualized language use. The study provides pedagogical implications in relation to how dramatizing children's literature can help disrupt social and educational injustices, transform students' stereotypical beliefs and biases, and promote empathy and critical awareness at large.

This article explores the role of the reportative BIN in Yucatec Maya language acquisition and socialization among children aged 4 years and above, focusing on their interactions during pretend play. Building upon prior research on caregivers' strategic use of BIN, the study aims to elucidate the nuanced meanings and functions of the reportative in children's language. Through a theoretical framework rooted in the theory of engagement, the article posits that BIN serves not only as a linguistic form but also as an interactive device conveying contextual and imaginative speech. Divided into six sections, the article progresses from theoretical underpinnings to interpreting children's language in pretend play. By analyzing spontaneous speech data, the study uncovers novel insights into the dynamic nature of reportatives, emphasizing the creative ways children employ BIN to engage in games. The findings contribute to a broader understanding of reportatives and underscore the dynamic nature of children's language usage and development.

The Mayan language Mam uses complex predicates to express events. Complex predicates map multiple semantic elements onto a single word, and consequently have a blend of lexical and phrasal features. The chameleon-like nature of complex predicates provides a window on children's ability to express phrasal combinations at the one-word stage of language development. The ubiquity of complex predicates in the adult language insures that children will produce complex predicates as some of their first words. The verb complex in Mam has obligatory inflections for aspect, person, and to a degree direction. The inflections vary in degree of attachment between syllable segments, affixes, and clitics. Inflections with vowels are phonologically free, while inflections without vowels attach as either syllable segments or affixes. The Mam verb complex requires the addition of a phrasal layer to prosodic models of lexical acquisition. The paper used this extended version of prosodic theory to make five predictions for the acquisition of the verb complex. The paper analyzes production data for three children between 2;0 and 2;8 acquiring the northern variety of Mam spoken in San Ildefonso Ixtahuacán, Guatemala. The children's production data for both the intransitive and transitive verb complexes support all five predictions to some degree. The children produced prefixes more frequently on vowel-initial stems than on consonant-initial stems, and they produced imperative suffixes more frequently than prefixes on consonant-initial stems. The children exhibited developmental differences and produced phrasal contractions that the prosodic theory did not predict. The results underline the need to integrate prosody into models of morphosyntactic development, and highlight the significance of complex predicates for theories of language acquisition.

This article evaluates the acquisition of directionals in Q'anjob'al, a Western Mayan language of Guatemala. The data come from a longitudinal study of two Q'anjob'al monolingual children of Santa Eulalia, Huehuetenango, Guatemala: Xhuw (1;9-2;5) and Xhim (2;3-3;5). The results show how these children acquire the morphological distribution of motion verbs and directionals in Q'anjob'al. They produce directionals parallel to motion verbs. Xhuw produced more motion verbs than directionals, while Xhim produced more directionals than motion verbs. Despite the omission of tense/aspect and agreement in the verb complex, these children produce two types of suffixes that distinguish motion verbs from directionals. The children acquired three groups of directionals in the following order: DIR3 (teq 'toward X', toq 'away from X') > DIR2 (el 'out' aj 'up' ok 'enter, in' ek' 'pass' ay 'down') > DIR1 (kan 'stay').

Children's acquisition of directional verbs in sign languages has received a lot of attention, but less is known about the sociocultural process of using these verbs, especially in the context of emerging sign languages in diverse language ecologies. Directional verbs are a common grammatical phenomenon of many sign languages in which some verbs such as 'to give' and 'to take' can move in the direction of one or more of its arguments for indicating grammatical relations between agents and patients or recipients. I discuss the case study of one signing family who uses 'making hands', an emic term for the signing practices of deaf Chatino people and their families in the San Juan Quiahije municipality in Oaxaca, Mexico. The family in question consists of a first-generation adult signer and two second-generation child signers, aged 4;6 and 5;3. This article describes their usage of directional verbs for making explicit requests, asking questions, and talking about hypothetical events, including presenting or withholding gifts as part of the cultural understandings and practices of the allocations of goods. Ethnographic data reveals that the children's production of verbs may be facilitated by directed input in the form of directives from a deaf adult signer, extensive peer play, and visual access to signed adult interactions. This case study offers insight about input and socialization for the children's usage of directional verbs in an emerging sign language in a local Mesoamerican ecology.

Both expressive and receptive language difficulties in autism emerge early and significantly have an impact on social functioning and quality of life. Despite their wide heterogeneity, autistic language abilities can be stratified into three distinct profiles. Language unimpaired exhibit near-typical verbal performance, language impaired show significant alterations in language structure, and minimally verbal display limited verbal abilities. However, little is known about the early trajectories and moderators specific to each profile. Here, we used a longitudinal sample of 286 preschoolers with autism and 85 typically developing (aged 1.5-5.7 years old), yielding 1164 visits. Our cluster analysis replicated the three well-established autistic language profiles (language unimpaired, n = 86; language impaired, n = 85; minimally verbal, n = 44) and revealed their specific early trajectories in expressive vocabulary, syntax, and pragmatics. At age 2.4, non-verbal cognition moderated the participants' attribution to each language profile. Moreover, early stereotyped language specifically moderated the later verbal performance of language unimpaired participants, while the language outcome of language impaired participants was moderated by early intensive behavioral intervention. In conclusion, we provided a fine-grained description of language acquisition trajectories and moderators of autistic language profiles in a longitudinal sample exposed to French language, paving the way toward personalized medicine to autistic language difficulties.

This study examines whether children acquiring Tseltal (Mayan) demonstrate a noun bias -- an overrepresentation of nouns in their early vocabularies. Nouns, specifically concrete and animate nouns, are argued to universally predominate in children's early vocabularies because their referents are naturally available as bounded concepts to which linguistic labels can be mapped. This early advantage for noun learning has been documented using multiple methods and across a diverse collection of language populations. However, past evidence bearing on a noun bias in Tseltal learners has been mixed. Tseltal grammatical features and child--caregiver interactional patterns dampen the salience of nouns and heighten the salience of verbs, leading to the prediction of a diminished noun bias and perhaps even an early predominance of verbs. We here analyze the use of noun and verb stems in children's spontaneous speech from egocentric daylong recordings of 29 Tseltal learners between 0;9 and 4;4. We find weak to no evidence for a noun bias using two separate analytical approaches on the same data; one analysis yields a preliminary suggestion of a flipped outcome (i.e. a verb bias). We discuss the implications of these findings for broader theories of learning bias in early lexical development.

Visual activity schedules (VASs) are an effective, efficient intervention designed to promote positive language and behavioral development for elementary students with and at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). However, VAS design and implementation varies widely in the extant research, prohibiting the ease of implementation in classrooms. The purpose of this article is to provide systematic guidance for educators to design, plan, implement, and progress monitor VAS effectiveness for students with or at risk for EBD.

Prediction error plays a pivotal role in theories of learning, including theories of language acquisition and use. Researchers have investigated whether and under which conditions children, like adults, use prediction to facilitate language comprehension at different levels of linguistic representation. However, many aspects of the reciprocal relation between prediction error and the development of language learning remain unclear. In this article, we review studies in language development that can inform us about the role of prediction error in updating, learning, and retrieving linguistic information. We argue that the study of individual differences in linguistic and cognitive skills will help the field understand more thoroughly whether, when, and why prediction aids language learning, and whether prediction error necessarily results in language learning and retrieval from memory. We close with a discussion of the needs and challenges for researchers to answer these questions.

For both adults and children, learning from one's mistakes (error-based learning) has been shown to be advantageous over avoiding errors altogether (errorless learning) in pedagogical settings. However, it remains unclear whether this advantage carries over to nonpedagogical settings in children, who mostly learn language in such settings. Using irregular plurals (e.g., "mice") as a test case, we conducted a corpus analysis (N = 227) and two preregistered experiments (N = 56, N = 99), to investigate the potency of error-based learning as a mechanism for language acquisition in 3- and 4-year-old children. The results of the corpus analysis showed that incidental feedback after errors, in the form of caregivers' reformulations of children's errors, was relatively infrequent, had modest informational value, and was rarely used by children to correct their errors immediately. The following two experiments contrasted error-based learning with errorless learning, where the correct utterance was modeled for the child before a potential error was committed. The results showed that error-based learning was not always effective, and when it was, it was certainly not superior to errorless learning. Collectively, these findings question the extension of the benefits of error-based learning from pedagogical to nonpedagogical settings and define constraints under which one mechanism may be more beneficial to learning than the other.

Background and Aims: This longitudinal study investigated the language skills, phonological working memory and lexical-tone perception of Mandarin-speaking late-talkers (LTs) and those with typical language development (TLD) at 27 months, while also examining their connections with novel word-referent mapping (W-R mapping) through eye-tracking at 33 months. Methods and Procedures: Participants included 22 Mandarin-speaking 27-month-old LTs and 22 toddlers with TLD. Data on expressive and receptive language abilities, as well as phonological working memory and lexical-tone perception, were collected when participants were 27 months old. An eye-tracking paradigm was further employed during the word-learning tasks, which included W-R mapping and word-identification test (W-I test) phases at 33 months. Multilevel models were used to analyse participants' gaze pattern trajectories. Outcomes and Results: At 27 months, LT toddlers exhibited poorer language skills (receptive: p = 0.015, expressive: p < 0.001), lexical-tone perception (p < 0.001) and phonological working memory (p < 0.001) compared to those with TLD, even after considering maternal educational level and participants' fine motor ability. During the W-I test phase, we observed that LT toddlers showed a slower increase in fixations on the novel target image while listening to the corresponding novel word over time, compared to TLD toddlers (linear: p = 0.011, quadratic: p = 0.007) after adding confounders. Further, expressive language ability at 27 months old was a predictor of their newly established W-R mappings at 33 months old (p = 0.016). Additionally, the toddler's phonological working memory and lexical-tone perception were associated with their expressive language ability (p = 0.001 and < 0.001). Conclusions and Implications: These findings indicate that the novel W-R mapping is not as robust in LTs as in TLDs, and the skills necessary for word learning share similarities with a wide range of expressive language abilities. Moreover, poor expressive language abilities were associated with deficits in lexical processing abilities; that is, phonological working memory and lexical-tone perception. These findings suggest the need for interventions aimed at improving LTs' lexical processing abilities to strengthen their lagging word-learning skills at toddlerhood.

Background: Approximately 50% of all young children with a developmental language disorder (DLD) also have problems with speech production. Research on speech sound development and clinical diagnostics of speech production difficulties focuses mostly on accuracy; it relates children's phonological realizations to adult models. Contrarily to these relational analyses, independent analyses indicate the sounds and structures children produce irrespective of accuracy. Such analyses are likely to provide more insight into a child's phonological strengths and limitations, and may thus provide better leads for treatment. Aims: Ram (1) To contribute to a more comprehensive overview of the speech sound development of young Dutch children with DLD by including independent and relational analyses, (2) to develop an independent measure to assess these children's speech production capacities; and (3) to examine the relation between independent and relational speech production measures for children with DLD. Methods & Procedures: We describe the syllable structures and sounds of words elicited in two picture-naming tasks of 82 children with DLD and speech production difficulties between ages 2;7 and 6;8. The children were divided into four age groups to examine developmental patterns in a cross-sectional manner. Overviews of the children's productions on both independent and relational measures are provided. We conducted a Spearman correlation analysis to examine the relation between accuracy and independent measures. Outcomes & Results: The overviews show these children are able to produce a greater variety of syllable structures and consonants irrespective of target positions than they can produce correctly in targets. This is especially true for children below the age of 4;5. The data indicate that children with DLD have difficulty with the production of clusters, fricatives, liquids and the velar nasal (/[eng]/). Based on existing literature and our results, we designed a Dutch version of an independent measure of word complexity, originally designed for English (word complexity measure--WCM) in which word productions receive points for specific word, syllable and sound characteristics, irrespective of accuracy. We found a strong positive correlation between accuracy scores and scores on this independent measure. Conclusions & Implications: The results indicate that the use of independent measures, including the proposed WCM, complement traditional relational measures by indicating which sounds and syllable structures a child can produce (irrespective of correctness). Therefore, the proposed measure can be used to monitor the speech sound development of children with DLD and to better identify treatment goals, in combination with existing relational measures.

There is substantial evidence that children's apparent omission of grammatical morphemes in utterances such as "She play tennis" and "Mummy eating" is in fact errors of commission in which contextually licensed unmarked forms encountered in the input are reproduced in a context-blind fashion. So how do children stop making such errors? In this study, we test the assumption that children's ability to recover from error is related to their developing sensitivity to longer-range dependencies. We use a pre-registered corpus analysis to explore the predictive value of different cues with regards to children's verb-marking errors and observe a developmental pattern consistent with this account. We look at context-independent cues (the identity of the specific verb being used) and at the relative value of context-dependent cues (the identity of the specific subject+verb sequence being used). We find that the only consistent effect across a group of 2- to 3-year-olds and a group of 3- to 4-year-olds is the relative frequency of unmarked forms of "specific" subject+verb sequences being used. The relative frequency of unmarked forms of the verb alone is predictive only in the younger age group. This is consistent with an account in which children recover from making errors by becoming progressively more sensitive to context, at first the immediately preceding lexical contexts (e.g., the subject that precedes the verb) and eventually more distant grammatical markers (e.g., the fronted auxiliary that precedes the subject in questions).

Spanish is the second most common language among US children aged 5-17, with 26.8% speaking it at home. To foster cultural understanding and promote positive relationships, it's crucial to introduce young children to different languages and cultures. Preschool language education can cultivate respect and empathy, building more inclusive communities. Culturally responsive education equips children with skills to value diversity, creating a harmonious cultural climate. This article highlights the importance of learning another language (e.g., Spanish) and introduces Language Learning Circles (LCC) for preschoolers. Research indicates ages 3-6 are optimal for language acquisition, emphasizing the need for early exposure to enhance learning, and cultural appreciation.

I'm a special educator whose classroom was next door to the homeroom of my hard of hearing son. I had him as one of my students for special education literacy three times a week. I was fortunate to have the professional background, personal knowledge, and treasured relationships with colleagues -- all of which helped me navigate the experience of giving birth to a child with hearing loss. What started out as a lone assignment quickly grew into a team effort! I share some of what I learned below.

The needs of parents and family members of deaf and hard of hearing students are unique. Not only do they face courses that are structured without regard for their needs, but they also endure other significant barriers. After brainstorming for many sessions and putting down ideas for a new curriculum that would teach and empower parents and their deaf and hard of hearing children, ASL at Home was born. It is a family-centered curriculum that focuses on the daily routines in young children's lives. While the authors had intended to create something to meet their clinical needs, the authors found that, more importantly, parents -- specifically the five mothers who worked with author Zarchy during his doctoral research -- reported that they had been empowered with language and with the knowledge that they can successfully raise their deaf child. They said that they felt they were building a strong, positive bond with their child through ASL and their other home languages. The curriculum, for use with students ages 5-10 years old, will feature in-depth grammatical instruction and teaching grammar concepts as they become relevant. ASL at Home is among the projects available to provide support for parents and caregivers who want to learn ASL. It allows the most critical individuals in their children's lives to experience communication and to reinforce connection with their deaf and hard of hearing children. Most importantly, it supports these parents and caregivers in providing their deaf and hard of hearing children with full access to language-learning opportunities at home and allows those children to be fully contributing members of their families.

Young children do not develop language skills by studying grammar and rules for forming sentences. Children's brains are wired to acquire language naturally; all they need is exposure. Many opportunities for language learning are lost to deaf children if they are not surrounded by other signers. In fact, the loss can be so severe that deaf and hard of hearing children can be at risk for language deprivation, a neurodevelopmental disorder that negatively impacts cognitive, linguistic, behavioral, and social development. To promote environments that are rich in language for deaf and hard of hearing children, a team of American Sign Language (ASL)/English bilingual researchers, university professors, and speech-language pathologists from institutions in different parts of the country present some practical strategies. These strategies can help parents, especially those who did not learn signs as their first language, to communicate more frequently with their young deaf or hard of hearing children and help ensure the development of their strong early language skills.

The Individualized Education Program (IEP), the child's plan to ensure specialized instruction and services, can help deaf and hard of hearing children develop critical literacy skills. Deaf and hard of hearing children are entitled to an IEP when they turn 3 years old, and parents and teachers should begin to incorporate foundational literacy skills into the IEP immediately. This article provides a description of literacy activities to include in the child's IEP.

This research explores into the issues faced by heritage language speakers and learners, a topic gaining increasing relevance as millions of individuals reside outside their country or region of birth for various reasons. The primary objective of this study is to investigate the experiences and proficiency of the heritage language among ethnic Kazakhs living abroad, with a particular emphasis on those in Russia. The aim is to shed light on the challenges they encounter in using the Kazakh language, their language skill requirements, and the obstacles hindering language acquisition. The research employs a descriptive, non-experimental, quantitative research design, utilizing survey research, descriptive statistics, and descriptive analysis of research data. The survey questionnaire includes participants' personal data, scales addressing challenges in using the Kazakh language, needs in Kazakh language skills, and barriers to language acquisition. The survey involved 100 ethnic Kazakhs in the Russian Federation, ranging from 10 to 72 years old (mean age 43.4 years). The study's findings reveal infrequent use of the Kazakh language by ethnic Kazakhs abroad and a low language proficiency level, with 40% at 0-A0 proficiency levels and 15% at B2-C2 proficiency levels. Younger participants exhibit lower levels of heritage language proficiency and less frequent use of Kazakh compared to their older counterparts, indicating a generational decline in language skills and usage. Challenges in using the heritage language manifest in difficulties writing in Kazakh due to a lack of knowledge about grammar and spelling, struggles in reading and understanding books, newspapers, and magazines, and ineffective communication with Kazakhs from Kazakhstan due to a lack of familiarity with cultural nuances and communication subtleties.

The purpose of this pilot study was to develop and evaluate the feasibility of an experiential teaching and learning initiative that trained undergraduate students studying speech-language pathology to serve as family navigators promoting social communication and language development in infants and toddlers from lower-income backgrounds. Three students completed one semester of training that included multiple interactive approaches to instruction. They subsequently implemented a nine-month, online prevention and outreach program to nine mothers of infants and toddlers to promote social communication and language development. Results of formative assessments were examined and affective outcomes were explored. The intervention was implemented as intended, and the experience was acceptable to both student and parent participants. Uncertainties with regard to feasibility emerged, including the integration of this program into undergraduate programs in communication sciences and disorders as well as variability in parent engagement related to the presence or absence of concerns about their child's development. This empirical inquiry adds to the limited research base on clinical prevention activities that take place beyond the classroom by critically analyzing the implementation and documenting the outcomes of this initiative.

Background: Language discussions have historically focused on the power dynamics between dominant and indigenous languages. This has generated discontent and contention on which language should rule the educational sector. The national language policy of South Africa mandates the use of all languages in the educational system. Even though there are 12 recognised languages, English is preferred in education circles. This ignores the research that demonstrates the advantages of speaking one's native language, especially in the early years of schooling. Aim: This study was conducted to determine how preschool practitioners assist the language development of learners in multilingual classrooms. Setting: Six early childhood education (ECE) practitioners from three preschools in Mamelodi township, South Africa were selected, based on choosing English as the language of communication, in multilingual classrooms in peri-urban areas. Methods: A qualitative approach and a case study research design were employed. It focused on purposive sampling of practitioners from three preschools in Mamelodi where the medium of communication was English. Interviews, observations, casual conversations and document and visual data analysis were data collection tools. A questionnaire was used to gather the geographical information of the participants. A fusion of the Bakhtinian philosophy of dialogism and social justice theory underpinned the study. Results: The results showed that despite English in their schools as a medium of instruction, practitioners used predominating home languages to assure understanding. This translanguaging approach was commonly used in every school. Learning in a single language was challenging because of diverse languages, hence the use of English First Additional Language. Conclusion: To promote language acquisition in multilingual preschools, translanguaging ought to be promoted. Contribution: This study proposes that early childhood teacher preparation programs ought to promote multilingualism by employing translanguaging strategies as a study unit.

This research aims to investigate the integration of religious moderation in Arabic language learning at a state Islamic university. Employing a qualitative descriptive method, data was gathered through observation, in-depth interviews, and documentation. The study emphasizes a tourism-based approach that incorporates local wisdom and pluralism into the Kalam course, aimed at enhancing students' Arabic communication skills. The findings indicate that embedding religious moderation within the Arabic curriculum promotes tolerance, inclusivity, and a moderate outlook among students, which, in turn, contributes to social and religious harmony in Indonesia. Additionally, the research highlights the importance of local cultural contexts in shaping student behavior. The study suggests further exploration of internal and external factors that influence the implementation of religious moderation in Arabic education at a state Islamic university. It also recommends adopting a mixed-method approach in future research to gain a deeper understanding of these dynamics and enhance the effectiveness of religious moderation efforts.

Gamification in second language acquisition research is a popular topic, but there are few empirical comparative studies in the literature. This quasi-experimental mixed-approach study enrolled 77 Japanese university EFL learners to enable a comparison between two digital vocabulary flashcard learning software conditions carefully designed by the author; the gamified group's software (group 1; n = 26) had daily awards (i.e., consecutive day awards, medals related to daily participation, and a bonus point counter in an effort to encourage spaced learning principles and discourage cramming) and the non-gamified group's (group 0; n = 51) did not. The daily awards had a significant effect in encouraging the gamified group to spread out their study efforts throughout the 12-week study period more effectively than the control group as they completed a lower median number of tasks per active study day (non-gamified: 104.76, gamified: 82.11; p = 0.021, r(75) = --0.264) but studied on more days to complete a similar total number of vocabulary tasks (non-gamified: 2313.00, gamified: 2228.50; p = 0.601). Moreover, the gamified group significantly outperformed the non-gamified group in terms of vocabulary knowledge score gains between the pretest and posttest; p = 0.03, r(50) = 0.300. These results show the numerous and significant positive pedagogical impacts of gamified daily awards.

As learning is more real and permanent when connected to learners' private lives beyond the classroom (Godwin-Jones, 2011), mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) has emerged as a good way to support language learning, especially in informal contexts. With thousands of language learning applications (apps) becoming available, more and more language learners have started to use them as a support for their language learning. The purpose of this research is to investigate the life cycle of language learning apps and the reasons why learners decide to start, stop and restart using apps to better understand the use of the apps outside formal education contexts. The data collected from a survey of 186 participants with experience using language learning apps were analyzed. The results showed that the language learning app has three different phases in its life cycle, which are the "increasing period," "decreasing period," and "reviving period" with three turning points. This life cycle is similar to the Hype Cycle, a model describing how a new technology develops. Furthermore, the reasons behind the three turning points were also discussed. Influence from teachers and friends was the most significant factor contributing to starting using apps. The reasons for abandoning apps can be divided into app-related ones such as dissatisfaction of apps, and learner-related ones, such as stop learning a language. Restarting to learn a language is the major reason for participants who chose to use apps again. The results also revealed that language learners had a positive attitude towards language learning apps, while the high abandonment rate of using apps also indicated that both apps and learning patterns could be improved if teachers can provide more sufficient and appropriate guidance to support the selection and use of apps, and app-designers can include more meaningful and interactive activities rather than just providing drills. [Note: The volume number (5) shown on the PDF is incorrect. The correct volume number is 6.]

Maria Montessori's work remains popular and influential around the world. She provided fascinating descriptions of her observations of children's learning. Yet at the heart of her work is a lacuna: the issue of how children learn their first language. For Montessori, it was a marvel, a miracle--but a mystery. We argue that the later philosophy of Ludwig Wittgenstein offers a way forward. With the clearer view offered by Wittgenstein's reminders, we propose that Montessori's work can be reevaluated to better understand Montessori's contribution, child development and, in particular, how children acquire a first language.

This study aims to 1) explore the listening challenges of high- and low-proficiency EFL accounting undergraduates, 2) compare listening challenges and listening strategies between high- and low-proficiency learners and 3) investigate the effectiveness of mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) in developing EFL-listening skills. The participants in this study consisted of 84 fourth-year accounting students from Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna, Chiang Mai, Thailand, who had enrolled in a course called English Listening and Speaking for Business Communication. They were divided into two groups depending on their ability levels (high and low proficiency), based on Kelley's 27% criterion-referenced measurement theory. Each group consisted of 23 participants. The research instruments included 1) a listening-comprehension test used for the pre-test and post-test to determine whether the participants had high or low proficiency and compare the effect of MALL, 2) a questionnaire on listening challenges and the utilisation of listening strategies, 3) a semi-structured interview and 4) a MALL activity plan. Data analysis included the calculation of means, standard deviations, percentages and t-tests. The findings revealed a statistically significant difference between the two groups regarding listening challenges; however, there was no statistically significant difference with regard to listening strategies. Concerning MALL, which was applied to both groups, a statistically significant difference was found in the post-test scores at 0.05. In other words, both high- and low-proficiency learners showed improved performance after the empowering strategies created with MALL.

This study explores the feasibility of using AI technology, specifically ChatGPT-3, to provide reliable, meaningful, and personalized feedback. Specifically, the study explores the benefits and limitations of using AI-based feedback in language learning; the pedagogical frameworks that underpin the effective use of AI-based feedback; the reliability of ChatGPT-3's feedback; and the potential implications of AI integration in language instruction. A review of existing literature identifies key themes and findings related to AI-based teaching practices. The study found that social cognitive theory (SCT) supports the potential use of AI chatbots in the learning process as AI can provide students with instant guidance and support that fosters personalized, independent learning experiences. Similarly, Krashen's second language acquisition theory (SLA) was found to support the hypothesis that AI use can enhance student learning by creating meaningful interaction in the target language wherein learners engage in genuine communication rather than focusing solely on linguistic form. To determine the reliability of AI-generated feedback, an analysis was performed on student writing. First, two rubrics were created by ChatGPT-3; AI then graded the papers, and the results were compared with human graded results using the same rubrics. The study concludes that e-Learning arning certainly has great potential; besides providing timely, personalized learning support, AI feedback can increase student motivation and foster learning independence. Not surprisingly, though, several caveats exist. It was found that ChatGPT-3 is prone to error and hallucination in providing student feedback, especially when presented with longer texts. To avoid this, rubrics must be carefully constructed, and teacher oversight is still very much required. This study will help educators transition to the new era of AI-assisted e-Learning by helping them make informed decisions about how to provide useful AI feedback that is underpinned by sound pedagogical principles.

The purpose of this research is to evaluate the effectiveness of Duolingo's game-based methodology in improving speaking proficiency within mobile language learning, while also examining the specific attributes and strategies contributing to its success and exploring implications for language education and learner optimization. Given the growing prevalence of mobile language learning platforms, the research meticulously scrutinizes the specific attributes and strategies employed by Duolingo that contribute to the refinement of oral fluency. This study employs a mixed methods design, integrating phenomenological and experimental approaches through a pre, post and attainment speaking tests with a control group design supported with metaphorical perceptions. The findings underscore the pivotal role of assimilating technological advancements and gamified pedagogical approaches within language education to expedite effective intercultural communication across multifarious linguistic landscapes. Furthermore, the results emphasize the importance of continuously adapting language learning methodologies to leverage emerging technologies and gamification strategies in order to foster effective communication skills in diverse linguistic contexts. The implications for prospective inquiries advocate for longitudinal investigations delving into the enduring implications of mobile game-based language learning on comprehensive linguistic acquisition, necessitating comparative inquiries to ascertain the comparative efficacy of diverse mobile applications in fostering distinct language proficiencies. Additionally, probing the influence of individual learner attributes and predilections in optimizing the utilization of mobile language learning applications could yield valuable insights for tailoring language acquisition paradigms.

In this position paper we present research and data demonstrating how pedagogical frameworks traditionally used in TESOL contexts can be harnessed by world language (WL) educators to scaffold language learning and advocate for emergent multilingual language learners (EMLLs). Focusing on three pedagogical frameworks--Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP), translanguaging, and multilingual ecology--we discuss how we have utilized these frameworks with WL teachers and teacher candidates and offer suggestions for how they might be used effectively in WL classrooms to both scaffold language acquisition and foster a greater appreciation for and pride in multilingualism.

This study aims to assess the physical literacy environment in 30 early childhood classrooms servicing 4- to 6-year-old children. A high-quality literacy environment that includes a variety of materials and resources is an important part of children's emergent literacy, as research shows their use supports oral and written language development (Dynia et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2023). Observations were conducted using the Early Language and Literacy Classroom Observation Pre-K (ELLCO Pre-K; Smith et al., 2008) and the Literacy Environment Checklist (Smith et al., 2002), along with qualitative observational data and photographs of the classrooms. Overall, results show a low or basic level of quality of the physical literacy environment. Classrooms lack quality features such as a wide variety of books, writing materials in learning centers, accessible environmental prints, and representations of children's diversity in reading materials. This level of quality is not considered sufficient to adequately support the language development of 4- to 6-year-old children, particularly those from disadvantaged backgrounds (Cunningham, 2010). These findings underline the importance of teachers' professional development to better support emergent literacy through the physical environment of early childhood classrooms.

Music substantially impacts early childhood development, especially language development, yet early childhood policies rarely emphasise the role of music in early learning and engagement. Research shows that effective delivery of early childhood music programmes depends on teachers' music knowledge, skills, and music teaching self-efficacy, which may be enhanced through teacher training. However, little is known about the training details and preparation of non-music specialist preschool teachers who use music to teach. The present study sought to determine whether music-based language programme (MBLP©) teacher training could improve the music teaching self-efficacy of non-music specialist preschool teachers and their MBLP© delivery in an inclusive preschool classroom. The 14 training sessions consist of a briefing, a workshop, a practicum, interactive reflections, and observations. Three non-music-specialist preschool teachers were trained to deliver MBLP© lessons to nine preschoolers aged 33 to 47 months. The within-subjects design investigated the teachers' self-efficacy in music teaching, while the single-subject design tracked their MBLP© lesson delivery performance. Data was collected using a self-reported music background survey, pre-, mid-, and post-test music teaching self-efficacy, teachers' feedback, and MBLP© lesson observations. The results showed that the training increased music teaching self-efficacy by 10 to 46% and revealed a positive relationship between practicum with interactive reflections and lesson delivery performance. The findings suggest that providing MBLP© training to non-specialist preschool teachers could help address language developmental issues in inclusive preschool settings.

In the evaluative phase concerning the practicality of language acquisition, the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) methodology has emerged as the preeminent standard in educational paradigms. Nevertheless, the import of integrating CLT becomes particularly salient within the framework of language adoption as a medium of communication. The application of a communicative approach to the learning and evaluation of English, specifically for young English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students, confronts distinct challenges. These challenges, if not effectively navigated, present a potential hazard to the realization of desired educational outcomes and have the capacity to hinder academic performance. Consequently, this undermines the efficacy of the approach vis-à-vis its envisioned impact. In light of this, the present study endeavors to scrutinize prospective challenges that may exert an adverse influence on communicative language assessment in the context of young EFL learners. Moreover, the study seeks to proffer viable solutions to mitigate these challenges based on empirical findings. The primary objective of this research is to engender awareness regarding the inherent difficulties associated with the implementation of the communicative approach. The research further furnishes actionable and efficacious measures conducive to both EFL education and the overall learning experience of young students. A pivotal aspect for the proficient application of the communicative approach as an assessment technique for young learners lies in the meticulous execution of assessment tasks.

Recently, ChatGPT, a cutting-edge large language model, has emerged as a powerful Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) tool with the capacity to influence education. ChatGPT provides ample opportunities for learners, researchers, educators, and practitioners to achieve the intended learning outcomes in various disciplines. This special issue examines the diverse applications and implications of GenAI tools including ChatGPT in education, highlighting their potential to enhance teaching and learning across various contexts. Key findings from seventeen studies collected in this special issue demonstrate that GenAI tools can significantly improve educational outcomes by providing personalized feedback, facilitating language learning, and supporting both qualitative and quantitative research methodologies. The findings emphasize GenAI's capacity to increase learner engagement and motivation, yet also underscore the need for robust ethical guidelines and human oversight due to potential issues with privacy, bias, and accuracy. This special issue also highlights the challenges GenAI faces, such as limitations in contextual understanding and its impact on critical thinking skills. In addition, it provides a foundational framework for exploring effective and responsible GenAI integration, aiming to enrich educational experiences. We conclude that future research should focus on the longitudinal effects of GenAI tools on learning outcomes, developing ethical frameworks for their use, and ensuring their adaptability to diverse learner populations to promote inclusive educational practices.

The study aimed to reveal the effectiveness of the promoting emergence of advanced knowledge programs in developing language skills among a sample of children with an autism spectrum disorder in Oman. The study adopted the pre-experimental approach of the single experimental group with two pre- and post-measurements. 10 children with autism spectrum disorder (speakers) from (5-8) years and good mental ability were used and selected to achieve the objectives of the study. PEAK program was used and a scale for language skills was developed that consisted of (34) items distributed over two dimensions (receptive and expressive language). The validity and stability of the study tool was verified. The results of the current study showed that there were significant differences at ([alpha] = 0.05) level in favor of the post and follow-up application in the average performance of autism spectrum disorder children on the scale of language skills (receptive and expressive) attributable to the promoting emergence of advanced knowledge. The study recommended the preparation of periodic meetings and workshops for workers in the field of special education and autism spectrum disorder children in the Sultanate of Oman to learn how to employ the PEAK program in dealing with this group of children in Oman.

The pandemic has affected many aspects of our lives including education and that has caused the Government to provide alternative teaching methods and make recommendations for online learning. Since smartphones and laptops using the internet are the only tools for learning, students are increasingly playing online games and being exposed to English vocabulary. This research aimed at identifying and analyzing whether students' participation in online games and vocabulary mastery simultaneously correlate with their learning motivation. This research is a quantitative research with a correlation design. The research was conducted at SMPN I Koba, Central Bangka, Bangka Belitung, with 93 students as respondents. The data collection technique used a questionnaire with a Likert scale on the online games questionnaire and learning motivation and the Guttman scale on the vocabulary mastery questionnaire. The prerequisite test uses the normality test, homogeneity test, and linearity test. Analysis using correlation analysis of r-Product moment and multiple regression analysis. The research results have shown that there is a correlation between students' participation in online games and vocabulary mastery simultaneously with learning motivation.

This article provides a theoretical and empirical argument in support of explicit language instruction. It proposes on theoretical grounds that certain features of a language are sufficiently complex and subtle that learners are unlikely to be able to decipher their full conceptual meaning on the basis of exposure alone. It further proposes that the kind of explicit instruction that has been assumed in much of SLA research - based on structural rules of thumb - is inappropriate and that an alternative approach, grounded in principles of sociocultural theory is an effective means of promoting development, which in the theory calls for both explicit conceptual knowledge and extensive and intensive communicative practice. The approach, or model, is referred to as Concept-based Language Instruction (C-BLI). Empirical support for explicit instruction using C-BLI is derived from pedagogical studies using the model. In addition, evidence from L2 neuroscience ERP research is considered as well as evidence from cultural evolution. The principles of C-BLI are compared to those supporting Dynamic Usage-Based instruction which emerges from L2 research informed by Complex Dynamic Systems Theory.

Traditional methods of assessing listening skills in language learners suffer from drawbacks such as subjectivity, inconsistency, and time-intensive grading processes. To overcome these limitations, we introduce an innovative assessment instrument designed to efficiently and effectively evaluate students' listening skills while offering instructors a dependable means to track progress. This study proposes the development of an online assessment instrument tailored to measure language learners' comprehension of spoken language. The two instruments incorporate a questionnaire and a variety of question formats, each gauging students' grasp of spoken discourse across diverse contexts and accents. Additionally, the online assessment assesses their proficiency in identifying main ideas, supporting details, and inferred implications within spoken communication. Accessible through a dedicated learning management system (LMS) platform available at http://lms.elsida.ac.id/, this instrument empowers instructors with a robust mechanism to gauge their students' advancement. By providing a thorough assessment of listening skills, the instrument stands as a powerful resource for educators seeking to drive ongoing improvement. The study's findings highlight how this assessment instrument can improve language learning through ongoing feedback. Through ongoing enhancements and testing in language learning contexts, the instrument contributes to a more effective evaluation of listening skills in language education.

A qualitative documentary research of software and multimedia artificial intelligences was chosen to enable the ontological understanding of the object of study that aims to explore the potential for learning through Artificial Intelligence (AI). Besides, it is shown how AI, as a novel component within the digital education landscape, contributes to educational technological capital. In light of our research area, the focus is on determining how AI can be harnessed to enhance the development of communicative competence. This entails identifying and categorizing AI tools relevant to language didactics. The sample size for this study is 120 AI applications, sourcing and compiling data on AI tools from specialized websites. This sample serves as a paradigm justifying a mixed-method study capable of combining quantitative and qualitative data. The variables supporting this study consider four characteristics related to the specific typify of the digital tool in the pedagogical context. The first aspect pertains to the classification of generative AI tools with potential educational use. AI tools enriches and enhances the dimensions of learning underscoring the urgent need for literacy in this technology. The second variable was linked to the Pedagogical Competences of Teachers and the areas. The category in language education pertains to educators' ability to create, adapt, and employ digital resources that enhance language teaching and learning. The third and fourth identify the skills related to language learning. In the context of learning environments with AI tools, it is essential to contemplate the role of linguistic competence as subordinate to communicative competence.

Active learning is recognized as an instructional approach that engages students in active participation and encourages them to reflect on the learning process. This research study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of implementing active learning in the "English at Work" course and to explore EFL undergraduate students' attitudes towards the active learning lessons. A one-group pre-test-post-test design was employed in this research, involving 67 EFL undergraduate students enrolled in the "English at Work" course during the second semester of the academic year 2021. Upon the study's commencement, the "English at Work" test was administered as a pre-test. This was followed by a post-test and the completion of questionnaires at the course's conclusion. Additionally, 12 students were randomly selected to participate in semi-structured interviews. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses were conducted on the collected data. The findings indicated that the lessons developed based on the active learning conceptual model had a positive impact on students' English language proficiency and their attitudes towards learning English. The difference in the mean scores of the pre-test and post-test demonstrated significant improvements in students' English language acquisition. Furthermore, the implementation of active learning lessons, coupled with a variety of engaging activities, fostered positive attitudes among students, enhancing their attention, motivation, and participation in the classroom.

Background: Two intervention approaches are implemented in South Africa to alleviate the deleterious consequences of congenital or early onset hearing impairment on language acquisition and subsequent poor learning outcomes. Aim: This study investigated the learning outcomes of foundation phase learners with severe to profound hearing impairment who received Listening and Spoken Language -- South Africa (LSL-SA) (adapted Auditory Verbal Therapy) therapy compared to those who received Traditional Speech-Language Therapy (TSLT). Setting: The study was conducted at four early intervention (EI) schools for children with hearing impairment across three provinces in South Africa. Methods: Data were collected through record reviews of their Speech-Language Therapy Outcomes and South African National Department of Basic Education academic report cards. Data were analysed using quantitative statistics. Results: Findings demonstrated that children with hearing impairment enrolled in LSL-SA outperformed those enrolled in TSLT in achieving age-equivalent language outcomes. A higher percentage of learners enrolled in LSL-SA achieved meritorious to outstanding learning outcomes. While a comparable number of learners progressed to mainstream schooling, children with hearing impairment enrolled in LSL-SA are enrolled for a shorter duration until discharge than those enrolled in TSLT. This is an important finding, particularly in low-middle income countries (LMICs). Conclusion: Listening and Spoken Language -- South Africa graduates achieved superior learning outcomes dependent on language attainment, providing contextually relevant evidence supporting the effectiveness of the LSL-SA EI approach. Contribution: These context-specific outcomes stress the obligation to upscale and fast-track EI services. Implications for investment in LSL-SA are proposed through collaboration between families, educators, and early interventionists.

The development of lexical competence in foreign languages is one of the skills that presents difficulties in the teaching-learning process, as it requires stimulation and retention on the part of the student and creativity from the teacher. In this sense, digital resources emerge as a conducive means to promote new knowledge and consolidate acquired vocabulary. In this context, the present research aimed to determine if digital comics influence the development of lexical competence in English in virtual environments at the higher education level. Methodologically, an experimental design divided into three phases (pre-treatment, treatment, and post-treatment) took place with a sample of 60 students during the autumn of 2023. The results demonstrated an association between digital comics and lexical competence development variables, influencing lexicon acquisition, experiencing creativity, dynamism, and language involvement. Besides, comics supported by Canva, Makebeliefscomix, and Pixton applications contributed to students' cultural, linguistic, and communicative repertoire. Concurrently, users' confidence increased through gradual and systematic recovery, use, and inventive writing activities. Supports such as images, dialogues, characters, and colors encouraged the retrieval of words for subsequent use. In this way, the cognitive process of recall ceased to be merely memorising to transition to a level of long-term significant comprehension. In conclusion, digital comics were plausible for encouraging practical, flexible, and playful vocabulary improvement in a virtual environment.

This paper aims to reflect the ideas of learners of English at higher education level in a multicultural non-native context. The participants were six learners of English (N=6) from six different countries and they were in the preparatory English class to major in the Department of International Affairs at a state university in Turkiye. The design of the study was maintained through in-depth interviews with the participants selected through a convenient snowball sampling. The data was documented for narrative analysis. The main findings elicited that although it would be better and more effective if they learned English in a native context, participants were all satisfied to learn English in a multicultural classroom which may provide some advantages in terms of learning different things and thinking in a multicultural environment. The motivation that drove them to learn English in a non-native environment was commonly related to educational reasons, yet they also indicated that they enjoyed learning foreign languages. In addition, the study submits that although it may sound favourable to learn English in its native context by native speaker language teachers, placing greater emphasis on hard work and effort, it is also attainable to learn English in a non-native context by non-native English teachers.

The educational landscape has undergone tremendous change due to the rapid development of technology, with virtual learning emerging as a prominent teaching method. In this regard, the Flipped Learning Class (FLC) model has recently been adopted as a cutting-edge approach. In this model, traditional classroom activities are logically reversed compared to tasks in conventional classrooms, often integrating teaching materials in the form of videos or PowerPoint presentations. The objective of this study is to clarify the impacts of FLC instruction on sixth-grade students' grammar literacy, comparing it to traditional face-to-face teaching through two distinct methodologies. Quantitative research approach was employed for this study. From a pool of 120 male sixth-grade elementary students aged 12-13, 100 were selected based on their scores in the Quick Oxford Placement Test. These students were divided into control and experimental groups. The control group experienced traditional face-to-face teaching without a social platform, completing homework at home. Conversely, the experimental group underwent FLC instruction using the Shad application as a social platform. A two-month teaching program was designed to cover the main English Grammar teaching objectives. As the primary instruments of the study, an English grammar test was used as both pretest and posttest for data collection. The pre-test was administered to both groups at the beginning of the study. After 16 sessions of teaching grammar to sixth-grade students, the post-test was given to assess any differences between the two groups due to the treatment. Independent-Samples t-tests were used to compare the means of the independent groups (experimental vs. control) for the post-test. The results indicated that the experimental group performed significantly better than the control group. Additionally, the findings suggest several pedagogical considerations for educators, learners, curriculum developers, and administrators. Educators, policymakers, and institutions can leverage these findings to optimize instructional approaches and enhance students' self-efficacy, academic literacy, and positive perceptions of the flipped learning experience in virtual learning contexts. Further study is recommended to explore the prolonged impacts of FLC model and assess its adaptability in various educational settings.