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The purpose of this project is to explore the mobility, mixing, and possible clumping of Pb isotopes during laboratory impact shock experiments. Impact events are a common planetary occurrence and their effect on istotope systematics and subsequent geochronology is not fully understood. By artificially shocking mixtures of zircon and sanidine and investigating the sample products, it may be possible to understand if and how Pb is mobilized during impact shock. Isotopes of Pb are the final daughter products of the decay chains of 238U, 235U and 232Th and therefore understanding how mobile the daughter product is during impact events could have consequences for dating impact events. These investigations will also reveal if Pb isotopes can be mixed between minerals

This study considers the survival times of meter-sized rock boulders on the surfaces of several airless bodies. As the starting point, we employ estimates of the survival times of such boulders on the surface of the Moon by[1], then discuss the role of destruction due to day-night temperature cycling, consider the meteorite bombardment environment on the considered bodies in terms of projectile flux and velocities and finally estimate the survival times. Survival times of meter-sized rocks on lunar surface: The survival times of hand specimen-sized rocks exposed to the lunar surface environment were estimated based on experiments modeling the destruction of rocks by meteorite impacts, combined with measurements of the lunar surface meteorite flux, (e.g.,[2]). For estimations of the survival times of meter-sized lunar boulders, [1] suggested a different approach based on analysis of the spatial density of boulders on the rims of small lunar craters of known absolute age. It was found that for a few million years, only a small fraction of the boulders ejected by cratering process are destroyed, for several tens of million years approx.50% are destroyed, and for 200-300 Ma, ~90 to 99% are destroyed. Following [2] and other works, [1] considered that the rocks are mostly destroyed by meteorite impacts. Destruction of rocks by thermal-stress. However, high diurnal temperature variations on the surface of the Moon and other airless bodies imply that thermal stresses may also be a cause of surface rock destruction. Delbo et al. [3] interpreted the observed presence of fine debris on the surface of small asteroids as due to thermal surface cycling. They stated that because of the very low gravity on the surface of these bodies, ejecta from meteorite impacts should leave the body, so formation there of fine debris has to be due to thermal cycling. Based on experiments on heating-cooling of cm-scale pieces of ordinary and carbonaceous chondrites and theoretical modeling of expansion of the cracks formed they concluded that thermal fragmentation breaks up rocks larger than a few centimeters more quickly than do micrometeoroid impacts. According to them at 1 AU distance from the Sun the lifetime of 10 cm rock fragments on asteroids with a period of rotation from 2.2 to 6 hours should be only ~103 to 104 years and the larger the rock the faster it gets destroyed. But although [3] are obviously correct stating that impact ejecta should leave small asteroids, the low-velocity part of escaping ejecta will mostly stay in orbits close this given asteroid and part of them will eventually return to it. Moreover, directly beneath the impact point the target rock should be fractured and crushed but may not leave the body (Figure 1). These two points question the conclusions of [3].

On the Moon, the energetics of smaller impactors and the physical/chemical characteristics of the granular regolith target combine to form a key product of lunar space weathering: chemically reduced shock melts containing optically-active nanophase Fe metal grains (npFe0) [1]. In addition to forming the optically dark glassy matrix phase in lunar agglutinitic soil particles [1], these shock melts are becoming increasingly recognized for their contribution to optically active patina coatings on a wide range of exposed rock and grain surfaces in the lunar regolith [2]. In applying the lessons of lunar space weathering to asteroids, the potential similarities and differences in regolith-hosted shock melts on the Moon compared to those on asteroids has become a topic of increasing interest [3,4]. In a series of impact experiments performed at velocities applicable to the asteroid belt [5], Horz et al. [6] and See and Horz [7] have previously shown that repeated impacts into a gabbroic regolith analog target can produce melt-welded grain aggregates morphologically very similar to lunar agglutinates [6,7]. Although these agglutinate-like particles were extensively analyzed by electron microprobe and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) as part of the original study [7], a microstructural and compositional comparison of these aggregates to lunar soil agglutinates at sub-micron scales has yet to be made. To close this gap, we characterized a representative set of these aggregates using a JEOL 7600 field-emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM), and JEOL 2500SE field-emission scanning transmission electron microscope (FE-STEM) both optimized for energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) compositional spectrum imaging at respective analytical spatial resolutions of 0.5 to 1 micron, and 2 to 4 nm.

Space weathering (SW) effects on the lunar surface are reasonably well-understood from sample analyses, remote-sensing data, and experiments, yet our knowledge of asteroidal SW effects are far less constrained. While the same SW processes are operating on asteroids and the Moon, namely solar wind irradiation, impact vaporization and condensation, and impact melting, their relative rates and efficiencies are poorly known, as are their effects on such vastly different parent materials. Asteroidal SW models based on remote-sensing data and experiments are in wide disagreement over the dominant mechanisms involved and their kinetics. Lunar space weathering effects observed in UVVIS-NIR spectra result from surface- and volume-correlated nanophase Fe metal (npFe(sup 0)) particles. In the lunar case, it is the tiny vapor-deposited npFe(sup 0) that provides much of the spectral reddening, while the coarser (largely melt-derived) npFe(sup 0) produce lowered albedos. Nanophase FeS (npFeS) particles are expected to modify reflectance spectra in much the same way as npFe(sup 0) particles. Here we report the results of experiments designed to explore the efficiency of npFeS production via the main space weathering processes operating in the asteroid belt.

NASA's Desert Research and Technology Studies (D-RATS) field test is a demonstration that combines operations development, technology advances and science in analog planetary surface conditions. The focus is testing preliminary operational concepts for extravehicular activity (EVA) systems by providing hands-on experience with simulated surface operations and EVA hardware and procedures. The DRATS activities also develop technical skills and experience for the engineers, scientists, technicians, and astronauts responsible for realizing the goals of the Lunar Surface Systems Program. The 2009 test is the twelfth for the D-RATS team.

Future Lunar missions are planned for at least 7 days, significantly longer than the 3 days of the later Apollo missions. The last of those missions, A-17, returned 111 kg of samples plus another 20 kg of containers. The current Constellation program requirements for return weight for science is 100 kg with the hope of raising that limit to near 250 kg including containers and other non-geological materials. The estimated return weight for rock and soil samples will, at best, be about 175 kg. One method proposed to accomplish down-sizing of the collection is the use of a Geo-Lab in the lunar habitat to complete a preliminary examination of selected samples and facilitate prioritizing the return samples.

Probing radars have been widely recognized by the science community to be an efficient tool to explore lunar subsurface providing a unique capability to address several scientific and operational issues. A wideband (200 to 1200 MHz) Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) mounted on a surface rover can provide high vertical resolution and probing depth from few tens of centimeters to few tens of meters depending on the sounding frequency and the ground conductivity. This in term can provide a better understand regolith thickness, elemental iron concentration (including ilmenite), volatile presence, structural anomalies and fracturing. All those objectives are of important significance for understanding the local geology and potential sustainable resources for future landing sites in particular exploring the thickness, structural heterogeneity and potential volatiles presence in the lunar regolith. While the operation and data collection of GPR is a straightforward case for most terrestrial surveys, it is a challenging task for remote planetary study especially on robotic platforms due to the complexity of remote operation in rough terrains and the data collection constrains imposed by the mechanical motion of the rover and limitation in data transfer. Nevertheless, Rover mounted GPR can be of great support to perform systematic subsurface surveys for a given landing site as it can provide scientific and operational support in exploring subsurface resources and sample collections which can increase the efficiency of the EVA activities for potential human crews as part of the NASA Constellation Program. In this study we attempt to explore the operational challenges and their impact on the EVA scientific return for operating a rover mounted GPR in support of potential human activity on the moon. In this first field study, we mainly focused on the ability of GPR to support subsurface sample collection and explore shallow subsurface volatiles.

Surface science operations on the Moon will require merging lessons from Apollo with new operation concepts that exploit the Constellation Lunar Architecture. Prototypes of lunar vehicles and robots are already under development and will change the way we conduct science operations compared to Apollo. To prepare for future surface operations on the Moon, NASA, along with several supporting agencies and institutions, conducted a high-fidelity lunar mission simulation with prototypes of the small pressurized rover (SPR) and unpressurized rover (UPR) (Fig. 1) at Black Point lava flow (Fig. 2), 40 km north of Flagstaff, Arizona from Oct. 19-31, 2008. This field test was primarily intended to evaluate and compare the surface mobility afforded by unpressurized and pressurized rovers, the latter critically depending on the innovative suit-port concept for efficient egress and ingress. The UPR vehicle transports two astronauts who remain in their EVA suits at all times, whereas the SPR concept enables astronauts to remain in a pressurized shirt-sleeve environment during long translations and while making contextual observations and enables rapid (less than or equal to 10 minutes) transfer to and from the surface via suit-ports. A team of field geologists provided realistic science scenarios for the simulations and served as crew members, field observers, and operators of a science backroom. Here, we present a description of the science team s operations and lessons learned.

Dust particles released from comet 81P/Wild-2 were captured in silica aerogel on-board the STARDUST spacecraft and returned to Earth on January 15, 2006. STARDUST recovered thousands of particles ranging in size from 1 to 100 micrometers. During the six month Preliminary Examination period an international consortium of 180 scientists investigated their mineralogy/petrology, organic/inorganic chemistry, optical properties and isotopic compositions. Stardust samples are now available for research by the entire research community.

Dust particles released from comet 81P/Wild-2 were captured in silica aerogel on-board the STARDUST spacecraft and successfully returned to the Earth on January 15, 2006. STARDUST recovered thousands of particles ranging in size from 1 to 100 micrometers. The analysis of these samples is complicated by the small total mass collected ( < 1mg), its entrainment in the aerogel collection medium, and the fact that the cometary dust is comprised of submicrometer minerals and carbonaceous material. During the six month Preliminary Examination period, 75 tracks were extracted from the aerogel cells , but only 25 cometary residues were comprehensively studied by an international consortium of 180 scientists who investigated their mineralogy/petrology, organic/inorganic chemistry, optical properties and isotopic compositions. These detailed studies were made possible by sophisticated sample preparation methods developed for the STARDUST mission and by recent major advances in the sensitivity and spatial resolution of analytical instruments.

In January 2006, the sample return capsule from NASA s Stardust spacecraft successfully returned to Earth after its seven year mission to comet Wild-2. While the principal capture medium for comet dust was low-density graded silica aerogel, the 1100 series aluminum foil (approximately 100 m thick) which wrapped around the T6064 aluminum frame of the sample tray assembly (STA) contains micro-craters that constitute an additional repository for Wild-2 dust. Previous studies of similar craters on spacecraft surfaces, e.g. the Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF), have shown that impactor material can be preserved for elemental and mineralogical characterization, although the quantity of impact residue in Stardust craters far exceeds previous missions. The degree of shock-induced alteration experienced by the Wild-2 particles impacting on foil will generally be greater than for those captured in the low-density aerogel. However, even some of the residues found in LDEF craters showed not only survival of crystalline silicates but even their solar flare tracks, which are extremely fragile structures and anneal at around 600 C. Laboratory hypervelocity experiments, using analogues of Wild-2 particles accelerated into flight-grade foils under conditions close to those of the actual encounter, showed retention of abundant projectile residues at the Stardust encounter velocity of 6.1 km/s. During the preliminary examination (PE) of the returned foils, using optical and electron microscopy studies, a diverse range in size and morphologies of micro-craters was identified. In this abstract we consider the state of residue preservation in a diverse range of craters with respect to their elemental composition and inferred mineralogy of the original projectiles.

Aluminium foils exposed to impact during the passage of the Stardust spacecraft through the coma of comet Wild 2 have preserved a record of a wide range of dust particle sizes. The encounter velocity and dust incidence direction are well constrained and can be simulated by laboratory shots. A crater size calibration programme based upon buckshot firings of tightly constrained sizes (monodispersive) of glass, polymer and metal beads has yielded a suite of scaling factors for interpretation of the original impacting grain dimensions. We have now extended our study to include recognition of particle density for better matching of crater to impactor diameter. A novel application of stereometric crater shape measurement, using paired scanning electron microscope (SEM) images has shown that impactors of differing density yield different crater depth/diameter ratios. Comparison of the three-dimensional gross morphology of our experimental craters with those from Stardust reveals that most of the larger Stardust impacts were produced by grains of low internal porosity.

Aluminium foils were used on Stardust to stabilize the aerogel specimens in the modular collector tray. Part of these foils were fully exposed to the flux of cometary grains emanating from Wild 2. Because the exposed part of these foils had to be harvested before extraction of the aerogel, numerous foil strips some 1.7 mm wide and 13 or 33 mm long were generated during Stardusts's Preliminary Examination (PE). These strips are readily accommodated in their entirety in the sample chambers of modern SEMs, thus providing the opportunity to characterize in situ the size distribution and residue composition - employing EDS methods - of statistically more significant numbers of cometary dust particles compared to aerogel, the latter mandating extensive sample preparation. We describe here the analysis of nearly 300 impact craters and their implications for Wild 2 dust.

The Stardust spacecraft returned the first undoubted samples of cometary dust, with many grains embedded in the silica aerogel collector . Although many tracks contain one or more large terminal particles of a wide range of mineral compositions , there is also abundant material along the track walls. To help interpret the full particle size, structure and mass, both experimental simulation of impact by shots and numerical modeling of the impact process have been attempted. However, all approaches require accurate and precise measurement of impact track size parameters such as length, width and volume of specific portions. To make such measurements is not easy, especially if extensive aerogel fracturing and discoloration has occurred. In this paper we describe the application and limitations of laser confocal imagery for determination of aerogel track parameters, and for the location of particle remains.

Metallic aluminium alloy foils exposed on the forward, comet-facing surface of the aerogel tray on the Stardust spacecraft are likely to have been impacted by the same cometary particle population as the dedicated impact sensors and the aerogel collector. The ability of soft aluminium alloy to record hypervelocity impacts as bowl-shaped craters offers an opportunistic substrate for recognition of impacts by particles of a wide potential size range. In contrast to impact surveys conducted on samples from low Earth orbit, the simple encounter geometry for Stardust and Wild 2, with a known and constant spacecraft-particle relative velocity and effective surface-perpendicular impact trajectories, permits closely comparable simulation in laboratory experiments. For a detailed calibration programme we have selected a suite of spherical glass projectiles of uniform density and hardness characteristics, with well-documented particle size range from 10 microns to nearly 100 microns. Light gas gun buckshot firings of these particles at approximately 6km s)exp -1) onto samples of the same foil as employed on Stardust have yielded large numbers of craters. Scanning electron microscopy of both projectiles and impact features has allowed construction of a calibration plot, showing a linear relationship between impacting particle size and impact crater diameter. The close match between our experimental conditions and the Stardust mission encounter parameters should provide another opportunity to measure particle size distributions and fluxes close to the nucleus of Wild 2, independent of the active impact detector instruments aboard the Stardust spacecraft.

The Stardust sample return capsule will return to Earth in January 2006 with primitive debris collected from Comet 81P/Wild-2 during the fly-by encounter in 2004. In addition to the cometary particles embedded in low-density silica aerogel, there will be microcraters preserved in the Al foils (1100 series; 100 micrometers thick) that are wrapped around the sample tray assembly. Soda lime spheres (approximately 49 m in diameter) have been accelerated with a light-gas-gun into flight-grade Al foils at 6.35 km s(sup -1) to simulate the potential capture of cometary debris. The preserved crater penetrations have been analyzed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and x-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDX) to locate and characterize remnants of the projectile material remaining within the craters. In addition, ion beam induced secondary electron imaging has proven particularly useful in identifying areas within the craters that contain residue material. Finally, high-precision focused ion beam (FIB) milling has been used to isolate and then extract an individual melt residue droplet from the interior wall of an impact penetration. This enabled further detailed elemental characterization, free from the background contamination of the Al foil substrate. The ability to recover pure melt residues using FIB will significantly extend the interpretations of the residue chemistry preserved in the Al foils returned by Stardust.

On 2 January, 2004, the Stardust spacecraft flew by the nucleus of comet 81P/Wild 2 with a closest approach distance of approx. 240 km. During the encounter, the Stardust Optical Navigation Camera (ONC) obtained 72 images of the nucleus with exposure times alternating between 10 ms (near-optimal for most of the nucleus surface) and 100 ms (used for navigation, and revealing additional details in the coma and dark portions of the surface. Phase angles varied from 72 deg. to near zero to 103 deg. during the encounter, allowing the entire sunlit portion of the surface to be imaged. As many as 20 of the images near closest approach are of sufficiently high resolution to be used in mapping the nucleus surface; of these, two pairs of short-exposure images were used to create the nucleus shape model and derived products reported here. The best image resolution obtained was approx. 14 m/pixel, resulting in approx. 300 pixels across the nucleus. The Stardust Wild 2 dataset is therefore markedly superior from a stereomapping perspective to the Deep Space 1 MICAS images of comet Borrelly. The key subset of the latter (3 images) covered only about a quarter of the surface at phase angles approx. 50 - 60 and less than 50 x 160 pixels across the nucleus, yet it sufficed for groups at the USGS and DLR to produce digital elevation models (DEMs) and study the morphology and photometry of the nucleus in detail.

Introduction: The water-content of Martian magmas is a topic of debate among researchers. Some Martian basalts are characterized with melt inclusions of biotite, apatite and amphibole; phases typically associated with hydration reactions on Earth [1-3]. However, the H-content of melt inclusions from these basalts is low, and bulk-rock H2O-contents range from a meager 0.013 to 0.035 wt. % in Shergotty [4]. Nonetheless, researchers note that low present-day water contents do not preclude a once hydrous past [5]. Since light lithophile elements (LLE), such as Li and B, partition into aqueous fluids at T > 350 C, workers proposed that Li-B depletions in pyroxene rims of Nakhlite and Shergottite basalts reflect the loss of several weight percent water from Martian magmas during crystallization [6]. Since similar depletions were observed in pyroxene rims from completely dry lunar basalts, it is likely that alternative mechanisms also contribute to the distribution of elements such as Li and B [7]. Given that many Martian basalts have experienced considerable shock pressures (15-45 GPa), it is possible that shock and subsequent thermal metamorphism may have influenced the volatile element records of these basalts [8]. In order to better understand the distribution of Li and B, we are studying the effects of crystal chemistry, shock pressure, and thermal metamorphism in pyroxenes from lunar basalts. Below, we discuss results from experimentally shocked and thermally metamorphosed Apollo 11, 10017 (A-11) and Apollo 17, 75035 (A-17) basalts.

Stardust successfully encountered comet 81P/Wild 2 on 2 January 2004 at a distance of 236.4 +/- 1 km. All encounter investigations acquired valuable new and surprising findings. The time-of-flight spectrometer registered 29 spectra during flyby and measured the first negative ion mass spectra of cometary particles. The dust detectors recorded particles over a broad mass range, 10(exp -11) to 10(exp -4) g. Unexpectedly, the dust distribution along Stardust's flight path was far from uniform, but instead occurred in short 'bursts', suggesting in-flight breakup of fragments ejected from the nucleus. High-resolution, stunning images of the Wild 2 surface show a diverse and complex variety of landforms not seen from comets 1P/Halley and 19P/Borrelly or icy satellites of the outer solar system. Longer-exposure images reveal large numbers of jets projected nearly around the entire perimeter of the nucleus, many of which appear to be highly collimated. A triaxial ellipsoidal fit of the Wild 2 nucleus images yields the principal nucleus radii of 1.65 X 2.00 X2.75 km (+/- 0.05 km). The orientations and source locations on the nucleus surface of 20 highly collimated and partially overlapping jets have been traced. There is every indication that the expected samples were successfully collected from the Wild 2 coma and are poised for a return to Earth on 15 January 2006.

Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) and Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) data collected over an area north of the town of Hico, central Texas, have been used to map disturbances in the surface topography and subsurface stratigraphy. The Radar topography results confirm the presence of multiple rings suggestive of an impact crater. Correlation between the orbital SRTM and on-the-ground GPR field data are affected by different biases related to variations in terrain and vegetation cover. Nevertheless, the correspondence of the two data sets supports the earlier conclusions that a complex, multiple ring impact structure is reflected in the topography of this area. The SRTM data reveal three previously unrecognized rings; with the outermost ring some 5-6 km in diameter. The crater appears to be significantly larger than the size (2.5 km diameter) previously inferred on the basis of aerial images. In addition, the GPR data suggest the presence of subsurface faulting that spatially coincides with the two inner rings of the crater. This suggests that the topographic rings are structurally controlled by faulting.

Fluid inclusions (microscopic volumes of fluid trapped within minerals as they precipitate) are extremely common in terrestrial minerals formed under a wide range of geological conditions from surface evaporite deposits to kimberlite pipes. While fluid inclusions in terrestrial rocks are nearly ubiquitous, only a few fluid inclusion-bearing meteorites have been documented. The scarcity of fluid inclusions in meteoritic materials may be a result of (a) the absence of fluids when the mineral was formed on the meteorite parent body or (b) the destruction of fluid inclusions originally contained in meteoritic materials by subsequent shock metamorphism. However, the effects of impact events on pre-existing fluid inclusions trapped in target and projectile rocks has received little study. Fluid inclusions trapped prior to the shock event may be altered (re-equilibrated) or destroyed due to the high pressures, temperatures, and strain rates associated with impact events. By examining the effects of shock deformation on fluid inclusion properties and textures we may be able to better constrain the pressure-temperature path experienced by terrestrial and meteoritic shocked materials and also gain a clearer understanding of why fluid inclusions are rarely found in meteorite samples.

Using in-situ x-ray fluorescence, we determined the Cr/Fe, Mn/Fe and Ni/Fe of a particle captured in aerogel on MIR are approximately chondritic, indicating an extraterrestrial origin. Impurity of the aerogel precluded determining the Cu and Zn.

Light gas gun studies have shown that 6 km/s solid mineral and glass test particles can be successively captured in 0.05 g cm(exp -3) aerogel without severe heating or fragmentation. In spite of this work, there has been uncertainty in the performance of aerogel for hypervelocity capture of real meteoroids. Natural impacts differ from simulations in that the particles are likely to be structurally weak and they typically impact at higher velocity that can be simulated in the laboratory. We are fortunate now to have had two successful capture experiments using aerogel exposed in space. These experiments provide fundamental data for the assessment of the value of silica aerogel for capture of hypervelocity meteoroids from spacecraft. The first experiment used 0.02 g cm(exp -3) aerogel flown on the lid of a Shuttle Get Away Special canister. During its 9 day exposure, the 0.165 m(exp 2) of aerogel in this Sample Return Experiment (SRE) captured two long 'carrot-shaped' tracks and one highly fractured bowl shaped 'crater'. The second collection was with 0.04 m(exp 2) of 0.05 g cm(exp -3) aerogel exposed on ESA's Eureca freeflying spacecraft that was exposed for 11 months before recovery by the Shuttle. The Eureca aerogel exposure consisted of four 10x10 cm module trays that were part of the TiCCE meteoroid collector built by the University of Kent at Canterbury. To date we have found ten 'carrot-shaped' tracks and two 'craters' on this experiment. The longest tracks in both exposures are over 2 mm long. Two of the TiCCE modules had a 0.1 micron Al film suspended a millimeter above the aerogel. On these modules several of the projectiles fragmented during passage through the film producing fields of carrot shaped tracks from the resulting miniature 'meteor' shower. Most of the tracks in these showers have observable particles at their ends. We have extracted one of the carrot track meteoroids and mounted it in epoxy for sectioning. So far the examination of these 14 impacts suggests that low density aerogel is a magic and highly effective media for intact capture of hypervelocity particles in space.

The extraterrestrial meteoroid residue found lining craters in the Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) aluminum and gold targets is highly variable in both quantity and type. In typical craters only a minor amount of residue is found and for these craters it is evident that most of the impacting projectile was ejected during crater formation. Less than 10 percent of the craters greater than 100 microns contain abundant residue consistent with survival of a major fraction of the projectile. In these cases the residue can be seen optically as a dark liner and it can easily be analyzed by SEM-EDX techniques. Because they are rare, the craters with abundant residue must be a biased sampling of the meteoroids reaching the earth. Factors that favor residue retention are low impact velocity and material properties such as high melting point. In general, the SEM-EDX observations of crater residues are consistent with the properties of chondritic meteorites and interplanetary dust particles collected in the stratosphere. Except for impacts by particles dominated by single minerals such as FeS and olivine, most of the residue compositions are in broad agreement with the major element compositions of chondrites. In most cases the residue is a thin liner on the crater floor and these craters are difficult to quantitatively analyze by EDX techniques because the electron beam excites both residue and underlying metal substrate. In favorable cases, the liner is thick and composed of vesicular glass with imbedded FeNi, sulfide and silicate grains. In the best cases of meteoroid preservation, the crater is lined with large numbers of unmelted mineral grains. The projectiles fragmented into micron sized pieces but the fragments survived without melting. In one case, the grains contain linear defects that appear to be solar flare tracks. Solar flare tracks are common properties of small interplanetary particles and their preservation during impact implies that the fragments were not heated above 600 C. We are investigating the meteoroid fragments in LDEF metal craters to determine the properties of interplanetary dust and to determine if there are meteoroid types that are overlooked or otherwise undetected in cosmic dust collections obtained from the stratosphere and polar ice.

Impact craters greater than 30 microns and associated projectile residues were analyzed by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis (EDXA). Objectives were to analyze a statistically significant number of projectiles to evaluate their chemical variability and possible clustering into discrete particle types. Bay A11 exposed six collector surfaces of anodized 1100-T4 (greater than 99 percent pure) aluminum sheets, 0.32 cm thick, yielding an exposed surface area of 1.1 sq. m. Four of the six panels have been retained at JSC, and were optically scanned, one (A11E00E) was prepared for SEM/EDX analysis. Bay A03 was occupied by high purity (99.99 percent) gold sheets, 0.5 mm thick, yielding an exposed surface area of 0.85 sq. m. Sample processing included the optical scanning (6X), labeling, and dislodging (by a punch-die device) of each individual impact greater than 75 microns for the aluminum and 30 microns for the gold. The 209 craters were dislodged form A11E00E, having crater diameters up to 3500 microns. Optical examination of the gold surfaces detected 238 craters, 198 of which were retained at JSC and analyzed via SEM/EDX. The analytical procedures included maximizing the geometric efficiency (take-off angles), using relatively long count times (500-1000 sec) and sufficiently high accelerating currents (25-30Kev). Despite diligent examination, a large number of craters did not exhibit measurable signals above background. Detectable resides were classified as either micrometeoritic or as man-made debris.

A program of flight experimentation was performed on the NASA KC-135A reduced-gravity aircraft to evaluate the potential for conducting impact experiments in reduced-gravity environments and to collect impact-cratering data at gravity levels below 1 g. Lead pellets were launched into coarse-grained sand at velocities of about 65-130 m/sec while the gravitational acceleration was maintained at 0.59-0.05 g. A total of 64 craters were studied and, after allowance is made for the atmospheric pressure over the target (0.83 atm), their diameters are found to have been consistent with scaling predictions made on the basis of ground-based experimentation. Formation times were also obtained for 33 of these craters and constitute a distribution that is somewhat different from that described by the ground-based data. Nevertheless, the KC-135 data set as a whole falls on the trend formed by the ground-based results. The overall agreement between the two data sets attests to the stability of the aircraft as a platform for impact experimentation.

The initial observations of Spencer (1933) that two distinct impact melts coexist at the 90-m-diameter Wabar crater, Saudi Arabia, is confirmed. A dark or 'black' melt contains on the order of 4 percent meteoritic contamination, while the transparent or 'white' melt contains less than 1 percent. The Fe/Ni ratios in both varieties exhibit considerable scatter on electron-microprobe scales, akin to those reported by others for metal spherules in the black melt. If the meteoritic component is subtracted, both melts are chemically very similar. Clasts engulfed by the Wabar melts were investigated also, as they represent the progenitor lithologies from which the melts formed. Bulk compositions for these clasts reveal subtle differences in modal feldspar content within the quartz-rich Wabar target. Both melts require that a minimum of two target lithologies be present in the Wabar melt zone.

Mixtures of chemically contrasting lunar soils have been shocked at pressures ranging from 18.2-62.0 GPa. Other than the generation of impact melts, modal and textural changes caused by shock include destruction of pore space and fused soil clasts and conversion of plagioclase to maskelynite. The loss of the fused soil component in these runs indicates that low agglutinate contents in shocked and/or compacted regolith breccias cannot be considered by themselves to be evidence of formation from immature regolith. From the petrographic and chemical data it appears that the impact glass formed mainly from the fine fraction and the fused soil component in the target, with relatively minor contributions from the other coarse clasts. The impact glasses exhibit the same chemical enrichments and depletions as their corresponding fine fractions and plot on or near a mixing line between the bulk and fine fraction of the soil in which they were formed. From this as well as several other studies it appears that the fusion of the finest fraction model is valid and that it accurately predicts the chemical systematics of impact glass formed from lunar soil. In addition, fusion of agglutinates present in the target soil is an important process.

A series of cratering and catastrophic fragmentation experiments has been performed, involving the impact of aluminum and stainless-steel spheres into warm (about 298 K) and cold (about 100 K) granodiorite targets. Although some vague hints of a thermal effect might be found in some of the results, in no case was there a substantial difference between the warm and cold series. Since these experiments were well within the strength-dominated regime of impact phenomena, variations due to low target temperatures in more energetic events will probably be negligible. Thus, there appear to be no significant temperature-dependent mechanical effects during impact into solid rock over a wide range of temperatures prevalent in the solar system.

The shock stress suffered by naturally shocked materials from the Shergotty achondrite was studied using X-ray diffraction techniques and experimentally shocked augite and enstatite as standards. The Shergotty pyroxenes revealed the formation of continuous diffraction rings, line broadening, preferred orientation of small scale diffraction domains, and other evidence of substantial lattice disorders. As disclosed by the application of Debye-Scherrer techniques, they are hybrids between single crystals and fine-grained random powders. The pyroxene lattice is very resistant to shock damage on smaller scales. While measurable lattice disaggregation and progressive fragmentation occur below 25 GPa, little additional damage is suffered from application of pressures between 30 to 60 GPa, making pressure calibration of naturally shocked pyroxenes via X-ray methods difficult. Powder diffractometer scans on pure maskelynite fractions of Shergotty revealed small amounts of still coherently diffracting plagioclase, which may contribute to the high refractive indices of the diaplectic feldspar glasses of Shergotty.

Hypervelocity particles colliding with passive capture media will be traversed by shock waves; depending on the stress amplitude, the particle may remain solid or it may melt or vaporize. Any capture mechanism considered for cosmic dust collection in low Earth-orbit must be designed such that sample alteration and hence loss of scientific information is minimized. Capture of pristine particles is fundamentally difficult, because the specific heat of melting and even vaporization is exceeded upon impact at typical, geocentric encounter velocities. From the results of calculated and observed melting behaviors it is concluded that shock stresses in excess of 50 GPA should be avoided during hypervelocity particle capture on board Space Station and that stresses 20 GPa, even at 15 km/s collision velocities, should constitute desirable instrument design goals. Some principal characteristics of the capture medium that may satisfy these requirements are identified.

The results of an experiment designed to test the validity of the model for agglutinate formation involving fusion of the finest fraction or F3 are reported. Impact glasses were formed from various mixes of orthoclase and albite powders, which were used as analogs for soils with chemically constrasting coarse and fine fractions. The results showed that the single most important factor displacing the composition of a small-scale impact melt from the bulk composition of the source regolith is the fractionated composition of the finest soil fraction. Volatile loss and the amount of melting, which in turn are determined by the degree of shock, are also important. As predicted by the model, the lower pressure melts are the most fractionated, and higher pressure is accompanied by increased melting causing glass compositions to approach the bulk. In general, the systematics predicted by the model are observed; the model appears to be valid.

Natural caverns occur on the moon in the form of 'lava tubes', which are the drained conduits of underground lava rivers. The inside dimensions of these tubes measure tens to hundreds of meters, and their roofs are expected to be thicker than 10 meters. Consequently, lava tube interiors offer an environment that is naturally protected from the hazards of radiation and meteorite impact. Further, constant, relatively benign temperatures of -20 C prevail. These are extremely favorable environmental conditions for human activities and industrial operations. Significant operational, technological, and economical benefits might result if a lunar base were constructed inside a lava tube.

The possibility has been considered that some or all major mass extinctions in the geologic record of earth are caused by the collision of massive, cosmic objects. Thus, it has been proposed that the unusual concentration of siderophile elements in strata at which the boundary between the Cretaceous (K) and Tertiary (T) geologic time periods has been placed must represent the remnants of a gigantic meteorite. However, a large 65-m.y.-old crater which could have been the result of the impact of this meteorite is not presently known on earth. One approach to evaluate the merits of the collisional hypothesis considered is based on the study of the probability of collision between a cosmic object of a suitable size and the earth. As moon and earth were subject to the same bombardment history and the preservation of craters on the moon is much better than on earth, a consideration of the lunar cratering record may provide crucial information.

The communication of blocky planetary surfaces into fine-grained regoliths was simulated by impacting a fragmental gabbro target 200 times with stainless steel projectiles. It is found that the comminution efficiency of the surfaces changes with time, being highest in the early stages of regolith formation and decreasing gradually. The relationship between mean grain size and cumulative energy is not linear. Individual, fine-grained regolith components can be generated very early from relatively large progenitor fragments without going through intermediate-size fractions. Impact comminution is capable of producing fractionated fines as postulated by Papike et al. (1982). The role of grain-size selective, lateral transport to explain the fractionated nature of lunar regolith fines may have been overestimated in the past.

The comminution of planetary surfaces by exposure to continuous meteorite bombardment was simulated by impacting the same fragmental gabbro target 200 times. The role of comminution and in situ gardening of planetary regoliths was addressed. Mean grain size continuously decreased with increasing shot number. Initially it decreased linearly with accumulated energy, but at some stage comminution efficiency started to decrease gradually. Point counting techniques, aided by the electron microprobe for mineral identification, were performed on a number of comminution products. Bulk chemical analyses of specific grain size fractions were also carried out. The finest sizes ( 10 microns) display generally the strongest enrichment/depletion factors. Similar, if not exactly identical, trends are reported from lunar soils. It is, therefore, not necessarily correct to explain the chemical characteristics of various grain sizes via different admixtures of materials from distant source terrains. Differential comminution of local source rocks may be the dominating factor.

Small-scale impact craters (5-7 mm in diameter) were produced with a light gas gun in high purity Au and Cu targets using soda lime glass (SL) and man-made basalt glass (BG) as projectiles. Maximum impact velocity was 6.4 km/s resulting in peak pressures of approximately 120-150 GPa. Copious amounts of projectile melts are preserved as thin glass liners draping the entire crater cavity; some of this liner may be lost by spallation, however. SEM investigations reveal complex surface textures including multistage flow phenomena and distinct temporal deposition sequences of small droplets. Inasmuch as some of the melts were generated at peak pressures greater than 120 GPa, these glasses represent the most severely shocked silicates recovered from laboratory experiments to date. Major element analyses reveal partial loss of alkalis; Na2O loss of 10-15 percent is observed, while K2O loss may be as high as 30-50 percent. Although the observed volatile loss in these projectile melts is significant, it still remains uncertain whether target melts produced on planetary surfaces are severely fractionated by selective volatilization processes.

The 26-km-diameter Ries impact crater in south Germany and the mechanism of ejection and emplacement associated with its formation about 15 Myr ago are discussed in detail, and the implications of the findings for models of crater formation on earth, moon, and planets are considered. Field observations and laboratory tests on 560-m core materials from nine locations are reported. The continuous deposits (Bunte Breccia) are found to be a chaotic mixture resulting from deposition at ambient temperatures in a highly turbulent environment, probably in the ballistic scenario proposed by Oberbeck et al. (1975), with an emplacement time of only about 5 min. Further impact parameters are estimated using the 'Z model' of Maxwell (1977): initial radius = 6.5 km, excavation depth = 1650 m, excavation volume = 136 cu km, and transient cavity volume = 230 cu km. The interpretation of lunar and planetary remote-sensing and in situ evidence from impact craters is reviewed in the light of the Ries findings. Numerous photographs, maps, diagrams, and tables illustrate the investigation.

Attention is given to the light which may be shed by the ejecta surrounding the 26-km diameter Ries Crater in West Germany on the Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary Event. Moldavites represent early high speed ejecta originating at the projectile-target interface. Bunte breccia reflects the major excavation and ejection phase, comprising more than 90 percent of all ejecta beyond the rim crest. Suevite is deposited last, and is derived from the deepest target stratum. Using various scaling laws that relate the bolide's kinetic energy to crater geometry or volume, and assuming a 25 km/sec impact velocity, a 1-2 km projectile diameter is obtained for a stony object. Geochemical studies reveal that projectile dissemination is heterogeneous, and that maximum extraterrestrial contamination modeled as a C1 chondrite is 0.004 wt pct. Observations from this and other terrestrial craters show that tektites and microtectites provide the sole evidence for widespread impact deposits.

Three separate samples of the meteorite Bjurbole were artificially shocked at pressures of 70 kb, 200 kb, and 400 kb. Analysis of xenon released in stepwise heating shows that the I-Xe system of the 400 kb sample is substantially altered by the shock loading, and it is no longer possible to infer an age or trapped xenon composition for that sample. The 200-kb and 70-kb samples display isotopic structures progressively less altered demonstrating the gradations in shock disturbance likely to be found in natural systems. Interpretations of the I-Xe and Ar-40-Ar-39 systems for several naturally shocked meteorites are also presented. New data for Arapahoe do not confirm the previously reported age and trapped xenon composition, demonstrating instead that its I-Xe structure has been strongly disturbed by shock.

The possible role of spallation on the free surfaces of target bodies in asteroid surface evolution in the presence of colliding bodies is considered. The ease of impact melt formation is discussed based on the results of shock recovery experiments, and a difference between collisions with dense, nonporous targets and with porous, particulate powders is demonstrated. It is shown that agglutinate-type glasses can be produced at impact velocities of 5 km/sec, but only in highly comminuted, porous targets and not in dense rocks. The apparent lack of agglutinate-type glasses on asteroid surfaces is explained in terms of coarse-grained asteroidal surfaces acting as dense, nonporous bedrock. It is argued that a possible mechanism inhibiting asteroidal surface comminution so as to inhibit melt formation and the effects of micrometeoroid impacts can be represented by collision processes with finite-sized targets rather than with a semi-infinite half-space as in the case of the moon, which give rise to spallation products rather than crater ejecta.