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Aims: We aimed to study a latent social structure behind the variables associated with teenagers' cannabis use at the individual level and, in a social context, formed by school class. Methods: The data used come from the European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs (ESPAD), conducted in Finland in 2011 (N=3744, response rate 89.6%). Methods used were Latent Class Analysis (LCA) and Multilevel Logistic Regression. The differences observed between pupil groups were interpreted through the concepts of social norms (conventionality of behaviour) and cultural dispositions. Findings: Four different latent classes of pupils were found: the "Conventionalists", the "Alco-rebels", the "Sub-cultural conventionalist" and the "Subcultural rebels". Although "Sub-cultural conventionalists" were aware of the cannabis culture, only a small proportion of them had ever tried cannabis. The risk for cannabis use was pronounced in all pupil groups compared to "Conventionalists", the risk being the highest among "Sub-cultural rebels." There was statistically significant variation in the cannabis use between schools, when the individual-level variables were taken into account. Conclusions: The findings stress the cultural and normative heterogeneity of school children and the importance of the school environment. The cultural competence of "Sub-cultural conventionalists" could be utilized in the preventive work.

BACKGROUND - We examined the Finnish concept of “nikotiiniriippuvuus” (nicotine addiction or dependency in English) in two public arenas in recent Finnish history (1970s, 1990s and 2000s). One was the biggest daily newspaper Helsingin Sanomat, the other the medical professional journal Lääkärilehti. DATA & DESIGN - A total of 102 print press items from the 1990s and the 2000s were collected through electronic archives with the search word “nikotiiniriippuvuus”. In addition, 41 texts were collected manually from the 1970s. RESULTS - Of the items from the 1970s, only three mentioned the concept of “riippuvuus”. Overall, we found that the use of “nikotiiniriippuvuus” has increased greatly over time. In order to know more about the implications of this, we identified some themes as meaning-making traits surrounding the concept in the materials. The analysis points to four main meaning-making functions of the concept: i) agenda-setting, ii) introducing and explaining self-governance techniques, iii) introducing a medical understanding, and iv), mediating views on responsibility division.

This article analyzes the riskiness attached to illicit drug use by means of a social representations framework. The implications of these social representations are further studied through their associations with views on drug policy: restrictive control and harm reduction measures. The data for the study is from a Finnish Drug Survey (N = 3229). Latent class analysis (LCA) and multinomial logistic regression analysis were used to analyze the data. Four representational profiles of perceived risk were identified: high-risk (70% of respondents), cannabis OK (15%), experimenting OK (10%), and low-risk (2%). All illicit drug use was considered as a moderate or high risk in the high-risk profile. Cannabis was considered less risky than other substances in the cannabis OK profile and experimenting was a less risky way of use in the experimenting OK profile. Most people in the low-risk profile considered the risks related to illicit drug use as nonexistent or minor. These representational profiles were also connected to opinions on drug policy: those who saw the most risks with use tended to support restrictive control measures, while those who considered illicit drug use to be less risky were more accepting toward harm reduction measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: We analysed illicit stimulant use in Finland by comparing three separate datasets collected at the same time. Methods: The data used were wastewater analysis (2014 and 2018), population-based drug surveys (2014 and 2018) and European Web Survey on Drugs (2018, Finnish data). Proportions, prevalence levels and trends of stimulant use as well as their consumption were measured. Factors associated with stimulant use were assessed for past-year stimulant or amphetamine use as an outcome measure in regression analyses. Results: Both population-based drug survey and wastewater data showed that stimulant use has increased in Finland between 2014 and 2018. Disadvantaged socio-demographic background and other substance use were associated with past-year stimulant use, with no geographical variation in Finland. The socio-demographics of those reporting amphetamine use differed between population-based drug survey and web survey. In the web survey, infrequent and occasional users of amphetamine were quite alike, whereas frequent users were more likely to be unemployed or use injection as the route of administration. Conclusion: Analysis of three different data revealed findings that would have been missed and conclusions that could not have been made by using only one dataset. Putting findings from different methods into dialogue raises new questions and opens new interpretations. This analysis emphasises the importance of the prevention of frequent use and associated harm, as well as the impact of versatile drug treatment and harm reduction services on it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background : Use of drug consumption rooms is a novel harm reduction approach to reach marginalised and isolated people who used drugs, under the high risk of overdose deaths and infectious diseases. The aim of this article was to evaluate the policy opportunities and barriers of the Helsinki City initiative for establishing the first drug consumption room (DCR) in Finland from the multiple streams framework. Method : A qualitative interview research method is used to evaluate the perspectives of stakeholders. By including 23 participants, we analysed the political, social and policy level advantages and disadvantages of the current initiative. Findings : Our results show that the cost of DCRs, the COVID-19 burdens on public resources, the requirement of legislative change, public unawareness, potential policy failure of DCRs, and its impacts on electoral votes constitute the main policy barriers. On the other hand, an increase in drug-related deaths, economic benefits of DCR for society, its effects on street safety and public order, being a local initiative, prospectus change in national drug strategy plans and motivation to catch up with EU standards were underlined as policy opportunities. Four issues, leadership, moral perspective, social change and generational differences, act as mediating factors, which are fluctuated according to public opinions and political environment. Conclusion : By applying the multiple streams framework, our results show that experts' DCR problematisation is still beyond the public and political interest, which needs additional effort around problem identification and prioritisation. Besides public unawareness, the COVID-19 situation seems to be postponing policy progress since the primary attention and available funds have already been dedicated to public health. Already having a local initiative and an upcoming drug strategy plan might be good formal leverage, but unexpected events might also trigger discussions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of multiple psychoactive substances is a widespread phenomenon among people who use drugs. Yet the concept of polydrug use is poorly defined in the social sciences. As a result, theoretical and empirical knowledge of polydrug use is underdeveloped; approaches to measuring polydrug use are inconsistent; and understandings of the cultural meanings of combining substances are limited. This article draws on a collaborative synthesis of three qualitative case studies of polydrug use from four countries: Australia and France, Finland, and Ireland. All three studies explored the practice of substance combination, or "combos" using the lens of intentionality, functionality, and social setting. In addition, the studies shared a common concern with teasing out the rationale for substance combining, and the controls used to balance pleasures with risks, beyond the simple physiological or sensory effects of substances. Our analysis leads us to recommend that a standard definition of polydrug use be adopted for future social science research—that is, the ingestion of two or more substances in combination, at the same time or in temporal proximity, so that the effects of different substances overlap. For analytical purposes, we suggest two subcategories: simultaneous and sequential intake. Moreover, we contend that it is the intention, meaning, and socio-structural context underpinning the use of substance combinations that is central to understanding polydrug use. Consequently, we suggest an adaptation of Zinberg's seminal concept to one of "drug combo, set, and setting" to incorporate an analysis of the effects of using substances together, or in sequence within a short time frame. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The co-administration of different substances is a widespread practice in the context of hard drug use. Among others, alcohol combined with certain substances produces potentially dangerous interactions. This article explores how people who combine alcohol with benzodiazepines or psychostimulants perceive these practices and how they share their perceptions in Finnish and Swedish online discussions. This is carried out by analyzing discussants' use of metaphoric expressions. We found that the metaphors given to the use of these substance combinations reflect their pharmacological characteristics. Through that, the metaphors and meanings were different depending on the substance alcohol was combined with. Moreover, we found that, in the realities the metaphors create, the control of use was differently conceptualized. The different aspects of control could be divided into three categories that, however, were not related to any specific substances but overarched all metaphors: 1) controlling pharmacological risks, 2) controlling social appearance and 3) ignoring control. As our findings bring out, often the actual health dangers and risks of the studied substance combinations were bypassed, and the control was rather understood either as a form of socially appropriate behavior or wholly ignored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Finland, polydrug use is generally seen as stigmatized deviant behavior. By means of the mixed methods approach, this article focuses on how people explain their polydrug use and what they attribute it to. Our findings show that these explanations vary according to sociodemography. Moreover, polydrug use is not always presented as planned and goal-oriented behavior, but also something that can occur due to sudden situational factors beyond the control of the person. Our findings implicate that the judgments regarding the deviance of polydrug use are contextual and different sociodemographic groups consider whether it is deviant behavior or not differently. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: To compare characteristics of recreational vs. medical growers in a sample of small-scale cannabis cultivators from 12 countries. Methods: Six thousand eight hundred ninety six respondents who took part in an online survey were divided into three groups as: those who reported growing for recreational use, those cultivating for medical purposes who also reported use of other illegal drugs, and those who reported cultivation for medical use and didn't use other illegal substances. The groups were compared using multinomial logistic regression. Findings: In comparison to recreational growers, the two groups of medical growers included more females, consumed cannabis more frequently, and were more likely to cite health-related motivations for growing. The medical growers without other illicit drug use shared some of the same features with the medical growers with illicit drug use, but in comparison to both other groups, they were older, used less alcohol and tobacco, and were less likely to be involved in illicit activities other than drug crimes. Conclusions: Findings suggest that claims of medical use are not simply an attempt to justify personal cannabis consumption, but do at least partly reflect a genuine belief in medical benefit. However, those growing cannabis for medical reasons form a heterogeneous group of people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our study explores the violence that occurs in the drug scene from the perspective of those who use illicit drugs in Finland. We conducted 56 theme interviews with people with experience using multiple substances and studied how they produced agency related to violent acts. We were interested in the kinds of meanings they gave to violence and how these meanings varied according to different positions: (1) experiencing violence (victim), (2) committing violence and (3) witnessing violence. We found that in the drug scene, these positions were not fixed but overlapping and intertwined. Violence was usually projected onto the psychopharmacological properties of the substances or rationalized as being necessary for survival. The relations to and positions of violence differed considerably between men and women. Whereas in men's interviews violence was often anchored to masculine power and questions of honour, in women's accounts it was often related to intimate partner violence. However, irrespective of the individual's position and gender, violence appeared to be a damaging experience that weakened his or her self-esteem. This vulnerability is encountered when people wish to quit the drug scene and its internal normative rules. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: Although polydrug use is increasingly recognized, knowledge of different patterns of such use remains scarce and underdeveloped. This study aims to identify the various patterns and cultural forms of polydrug use. Methods: The data used consist of interviews with 56 Finnish drug users from different backgrounds who were asked to describe their experiences of using and mixing multiple substances. The analysis was conducted by reconstructing polydrug use episodes into chronological narratives, with a focus on conscious risk-taking, control and identity formation. Findings: In our analysis, we recognized four key narrative types of polydrug use based on different levels of risk evaluation and management: "social recreation", "self-discovery", "hustling" and "addiction". We interpret these narrative types as reflections of social identities shaped by different layers of drug culture and individual risk-taking strategies. Conclusions: Our findings illustrate that polydrug use is a highly diverse and heterogeneous phenomenon that ultimately operates based on the same cultural codes as drug subcultures in general, thereby representing cultural variation within the drug culture. What makes polydrug use special is that, instead of using individual substances, users combine multiple substances to achieve their goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An introduction is presented in which the editor discusses various reports within the issue on topics including alcohol use disorder, substance use, and polydrug use.

Aims: Information technology has become an essential part of drug culture, providing a platform for lay knowledge concerning drug use. Due to the co-effects of different substances, making substance "combos" requires advanced skills to enhance pleasures and manage risks. In this study, we focussed on Finnish and Swedish online discussions as a context for learning and sharing experiences of combining substances. Methods: Taking influences from positioning theory, we used qualitative methods to map what kinds of mutual interactive positions related to the expertise in polydrug use online discussants take and how these positions are negotiated and reformulated in the online setting. We reflect these results through Howard S. Becker's theory of social learning, according to which becoming a drug user is a process that occurs in interaction with other users, as the beginners need a model and advice from experienced users in order to claim their place in the users' community. Results: In online forums, users discuss the risks and pleasures of combining drugs – on the one hand, in relation to different situations and, on the other hand, in relation to different competence positions. This occurs by asking for advice, presenting one's knowledge, challenging others, repositioning oneself, defending one's position or proving one's competence. Conclusion: Online discussion forums constitute a kind of virtual academy where knowledge of the pleasures and risks of combining substances is produced and circulated, and where experienced masters mediate their expertise to less experienced novices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines how high performance buildings must be designed to dynamically respond to daylight to both achieve optimum energy efficiency and provide a comfortable environment for their occupants. Technology development's role and trends in building code requirements will be covered as well as future building designs. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Drug consumption rooms are one of the harm reduction interventions to handle complex social problems. The Helsinki city initiative puts drug consumption room (DCR) on a government agenda in Finland, which has also triggered a broader discussion. This study presents how stakeholders problematise and what solutions they propose for DCRs. The research is based on in-depth interviews of 23 stakeholders and the theoretical perspective of Bacchi’s approach – ‘What’s the problem represented to be?’ (WPR). The results show that while stakeholders’ solutions resemble each other on the core DCR functions, the variations are found mainly in the introduction of extended services, policy development strategy, types of drug allowance in DCRs, and drug testing options. Stigmatisation of PWUDs still leads the harm reduction services to be considered from a moral framework. Stakeholders tend to take their positions according to strategic considerations related to electoral politics, expedience and the symbolic role of policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research on cannabis cultivation has identified several factors associated with a grower's likelihood of detection by law enforcement. However, these studies are difficult to compare, as they drew from different data sources and methods, and have focused on only one geographical location. This article revisits the issue of detection using a large sample of cannabis cultivators recruited in three countries: Belgium ( n = 659), Denmark ( n = 560) and Finland ( n = 1296). Respondents were recruited in the context of a self-reported online survey conducted successively in each country between 2006 and 2008. Multivariate analyses suggest several country-specific similarities and differences. Importantly, the Finnish growers reported being arrested significantly more often than Belgians or Danes. The probability that Finnish growers would be arrested increased with time spent on growing, the size of the cultivation site and when respondents did not work alone. In Denmark, the risks increased with the size of the cultivation-related network, but decreased when respondents started growing later in life. In Belgium, no cultivation-related characteristics were associated with detection. The results indicate that the risks of apprehension for cannabis cultivation are typically country-specific. These findings are discussed in the context of country-specific policies in regards to cannabis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AIMS -- This paper explores different approaches to quantify the human costs related to drug use. DATA AND METHODS -- The data come from a representative survey of 3092 respondents above the age of 18 in four Nordic capitals: Copenhagen, Heisinki, Oslo and Stockholm. RESULTS -- The results show that in most Nordic capitals more than half of the respondents at some time have known and worried about the drug use of somebody they know personally. Moreover, while the average reported harm was about 2 on a scale from 0 to 10, a significant minority (1074 of those knowing drug users indicated that the harm was above 5. CONCLUSIONS -- Many persons have at some time personally known somebody who uses drugs. This causes significant human harm and should be included in the estimate of the social cost of illegal drugs. These results are relevant in the debate on the size of the drug problem as well as for targeting groups that experience the highest costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the reorganization of Finnish drug policy in the light of recent major changes. The analysis is inspired by writings of criminologist David Garland on crime control and governmental control strategies (Garland, 1996, 2000, 2001), and by the British drug debate on the normalization of drug use (Parker, 2005; Parker et al., 1998; Shiner & Newburn, 1999; South, 1999). Garland distinguishes between adaptive and non-adaptive social responses to crime. Adaptive responses generally lower the objectives of public policy because the goals seem unrealistic. If you cannot get the best, you can always strive for the good. Non-adaptive or repressive responses are needed to justify the image of the State as an efficient and competent actor. The conclusion of the paper is that, after a somewhat stormy debate in Finland around the turn of the century, the adaptive and non-adaptive responses have peacefully aligned with each other. This dual-track model has become the new paradigm in Finnish drug policy: Both harm reduction and criminal control approaches are now well established and expansive. Related trends are recognized also in other countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This presentation describes the two last decades of Finnish social alcohol and drug research based on work done by the Alcohol and Drug Research Group and The Finnish Foundation for Alcohol Studies. The Group consists of 13 permanent researchers and three research secretaries. The main activity of the Foundation is to award grants for post-gradual students. In recent years alcohol studies have been heavily influenced by Finland's entry into the EU. Simultaneously, the position of drug research has been considerably strengthened. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• AIMS This article reports the results of a population survey in autumn 2004. First, trends in drug use are studied by comparing the 2004 data with materials collected in the same way in 1992. 1996, 1998 and 2002. Secondly. the relationship between drug use and alcohol consumption is discussed. This latter aspect is of special interest in Finland today following the changes in the alcohol environment in spring 2004 (tax cuts on alcohol, the discontinuation of the import quota within the EU and from Estonia). If alcohol consumption increases, the question is will that have the effect of driving up the consumption of other substances (addition hypothesis) or on the contrary, will drug use decrease and be substituted by increased alcohol consumption (substitution hypothesis)? • METHODS The data for the research were collected in a postal questionnaire in autumn 2004. A random sample of 3992 persons aged 15-69 was drawn from the central population register. A total of 2526 persons responded, giving a response rate of 63 per cent. In order to gain a clearer picture of the relationship between drug use and alcohol consumption, we have linked the data for 1998, 2002 and 2004 into one dataset comprising more than 7 000 respondents. • RESULTS The tendency for drug use and experimenting to increase has slowed down since the turn of the millennium. The increase in alcohol sales and tourist imports is not driving up the level of drug use. However, this study lends support to the observations by Juha Partanen (Wet high (1994)) about the close links between drug use and alcohol consumption. In the urban life-styles of younger people the use of cannabis is interwoven with frequent clubbing and party-style drinking patterns. Another indication of the intertwining of drug and alcohol cultures is found in the group of mixed users, who not only drink heavily but also use various drugs and medicines. It would seem that the risk of drug use is increased by the early onset of binge drinking. • CONCLUSION There is as yet not enough evidence to confirm the addition hypothesis. However, given the close links of drug use with alcohol consumption, it certainly is a possibility that if alcohol consumption sharply increases, this might trigger an increase in drug use and experimenting, particularly among young people. The substitution hypothesis, on the other hand, does not seem very likely. On the contrary, it seems that drug use in Finland ties in rather closely with drinking to intoxication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]