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To study the effect of functional hemispherotomy on electrical status epilepticus during slow wave sleep (ESES) and language development. The source-population comprised prospectively collected data from patients with a history of at least 2 years after functional hemispherotomy. Study inclusion criteria were ascertained diagnosis of ESES prior to surgery and complete developmental follow-up data. A control group without ESES was drawn from the source population. Language Quotients (LQ) prior to surgery and at last follow-up were calculated. Hypotheses were: (1) Children with ESES have lower preoperative LQs than children without ESES; (2) Remission of ESES after surgery is associated with significant ‘catch up’ of the LQs. Nonparametric Wilcoxon and Chi-square tests were applied. 11 cases (five female) and 21 controls (eleven female) were included. Prior to surgery, children with ESES had significantly lower LQs compared with their controls ( p = 0.015). The median follow-up after surgery was 6.0 years (±2.2; range 2–9 years). ESES remitted immediately after surgery in 90.9% of the patients. A significant increase in LQ was noticed in these children ( p = 0.038). The results were independent of the side of surgery. Functional hemispherotomy may have beneficial effects on ESES and further language development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective Hippocampal Sclerosis (HS) is widely recognized as a significant underlying cause of drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) in adults. In contrast, HS is a rare finding in paediatric surgical series and data on this patient group are scarce. Methods We studied 34 children and adolescents with drug-resistant TLE and MTS who had epilepsy surgery at our centre with regard to electroclinical characteristics, MRI features and histopathology. Special focus was set on 15 children in whom histopathology was consistent with Focal Cortical Dysplasia (FCD) Type IIIa. Results Clinical characteristics associated with this highly selective subset of patients were: the presence of febrile seizures during infancy, a shorter duration of active epilepsy, a lower age at epilepsy surgery, extended EEG changes as well as excellent outcomes after anterior temporo-polar resection. However, we were unable to detect any significant association with either specific features on neuroimaging or neuropathological subtyping of the hippocampal sclerosis. Conclusion Data on HS in children with temporal lobe epilepsy is scarce and available data sets limitied. In the light of this perspective we present the first detailed description and comprehensive data analysis of children with the novel entity of FCD Type IIIa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present an 11 months old girl with Sturge Weber syndrom (SWS) and infantile spasms, refractory to treatment; The child was delivered in the 36th week of gestation. On prenatal ultrasound the obstetrician noticed an enlargement of the right ventricle. Postnatal, the MRI showed at first indications for an early SWS; hypertrophy of the right hemisphere with reduced gyration, T1 hyperintense and Tw2 hypointense signal alterations in the right periventricular white matter; proliferation of superficial vessels after administration of contrast agent and on SWI sequences, and a dysplastic corpus callosum. From day 1 onwards the child presented with a severe muscular hypotonia and daily series of complex partial and focal seizures occurred. The EEG was concordant with continuous epileptic discharges over the right hemisphere. The establishment of several AEDs did not yield any seizure control. Extensive diagnostics were carried out and in the light of these results the suspicious diagnosis of a type III SWS with an isolated leptomeningeal-brain angiom, was raised. In the combination of the diagnostics and the patients poor general condition, the indication for epilepsy surgery was met. At the age of 7 months a functional hemispherotomy was performed. Since the surgery the patient is seizure-free and there is a significant improvement of motor skills, despite the expected left-sided hemiparesis. Neurohistopathological assessment of the resected tissue showed severe meningoangiomatosis associated with classical 4-layered polymicrogyria, although no mosaic mutation in the GNAQ gene was found. Detailed immunohistological analysis presented small immature neurons in a 4-layered cortical organization as well as various sizes of malformed bloodvessels within the meninges. In addition, a hyperactivation of the (PI3K)-AKT3-mTOR pathway (pS6, pAkt Ser 473) could be detected. Our case highlights the importance of thorough clinical assessment and the effect of epilepsy surgery also in highly complex malformations of cortical development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective The prognosis of infantile spasms (IS) is usually unfavorable with respect to treatment and developmental outcomes. The antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) most likely to be effective in the short-term management (complete cessation of spasm and EEG normalization) are ACTH and Vigabatrin, but there is insufficient evidence that these drugs also improve long-term outcomes. Both drugs have shown serious (irreversible and in part lethal) side effects. The ketogenic diet (KD) is licensed for drug-resistant epilepsy including IS as second-line treatment. Aim of this randomized, prospective study was to evaluate the efficacy and tolerability of the KD compared with ACTH. Methods All infants with IS referred to the Medical University of Vienna between June 2008 and September 2014 who were eligible for both treatments were included and randomized to either ACTH or the KD (liquid formula) after informed consent. When failure to the first treatment occurred (seizures and/or persistent hypsarrhyhtmia), patients were switched to the alternative treatment. Seizure and developmental outcomes as well as side effects were evaluated at 12 months after treatment initiation. Results 32 children were randomized (16 ACTH/16 KD). 9/16 randomized to the KD became seizure free (56%), with recurrence of seizures in 3 (18%) after 6 months. 7 (44%) did not respond. 10 non-responders were then switched to ACTH and further 4 children became seizure free (40%). The KD was well tolerated. 10/16 patients randomized to ACTH (62%) became seizure free and 3 (18%) relapsed, 6 (38%) did not respond. 6 patients were then switched to the KD and one child became seizure free (16%). 14/16 children on ACTH children showed severe side effects. Conclusion No differences in responder rates or in efficacy were observed between the KD and ACTH. However, compliance was better in the KD group and no severe side effects were observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We evaluated prospectively the effect of Everolimus on epilepsy in children and adolescents with TSC treated with Everolimus for SEGA at our center. Methods This is a retrospective analysis of prospectively collected data: included were patients ≤19 years with epilepsy, treated with Votubia, who had regular prospective follow-up every 3 months at the study center (clinical inspection and EEG, seizure diaries, blood sampling). Everolimus is orally administered once per day, starting with 4.5 mg/m 2 and titration to achieve blood trough concentrations of 5–15 ng/ml. Response was defined as ≥50% reduction in seizure count. Results We present pilot data of 12 patients (4 female, 8 male), with genetically confirmed diagnosis of TSC (3 TSC1, 9 TSC2 mutations). The median age at initiation of Votubia was 10 years (y) (range: 2–19 y). The median duration of epilepsy prior to treatment was 9.5 y (range: 1.75–16.75 y). The median number of AEDs prior to treatment was 1 (range: 1–3). The median seizure frequency prior to treatment was 30 seizures/month (range: 2–1470 seizures/month). 8/12 (66%) patients were responders. The median follow up after initiation of Everolimus was 13.5 months (range: 2–31 months). The median reduction in seizure frequency was 93% (range: 0–100%). Four patients became seizure free. The median number of AED after treatment was 1 (range: 1–2). The effect on seizure frequency was accompanied by significant developmental progress in all seizure free children. 4 patients were non-responders, one of them was incompliant. Side effects were observed in 7 patients (58%). The most common side effects were aphtae (7/7); 1 patient was hospitalized because of angina herpetica and pneumonia. In no case the Everolimus treatment had to be interrupted or withdrawn. Conclusions Everolimus seems to be effective and safe in treating TSC associated epilepsy in pediatric patients (even in cases prior refractory to AEDs). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: We studied the impact of depressive symptoms on adverse effects (AEs) in people with epilepsy (PWE) on antiseizure medication (ASM) therapy. An effect of depression on the AE burden has already been reported. We studied the correlation of various depressive symptoms with specific AEs to assess which AEs are especially prone to being confounded by particular depressive symptoms., Methods: PWE filled in a variety of questionnaires including the "Neurological Disorder Depression Inventory for Epilepsy" (NDDI-E), "Emotional Thermometers 4" (ET4) and "Liverpool Adverse Events Profile" (LAEP). Depression was defined by a NDDI-E score > 13. Depressive symptoms consisted of NDDI-E and ET4 items. Discriminant analysis identified those AEs (=LAEP items) that were most highly influenced by depression. Logistic regression analysis yielded correlations of different depressive symptoms with specific AEs., Results: We included 432 PWE. The strongest discriminators for depression were the LAEP items "Depression", "Nervousness/agitation," and "Tiredness". Out of all depressive symptoms "Everything I do is a struggle" most strongly correlated with total LAEP score (odds ratio [OR] = 3.1) and correlated with all but one LAEP item. Other depressive symptoms correlated to varying degrees with total LAEP and item scores. The number of ASMs, lack of seizure remission, and female gender correlated with high LAEP scores., Significance: To the best of our knowledge, we are the first to show that various depressive symptoms correlate with specific LAEP items. This information can be helpful for quick evaluation of whether the reporting of different LAEP items may be confounded by particular depressive symptoms. This is relevant because changes in therapy may differ depending on if AEs are confounded by depressive symptoms. Simply reporting a particular depressive symptom may give a clue to whether specific AEs are confounded by depression. Our findings confirm the importance of screening for depression in all PWE., Plain Language Summary: In this study we measured depressive disorder and side effects caused by medication used to treat epilepsy with self-reported questionnaires in a cohort of people with epilepsy. We found depressive disorder to influence the perception of side effects that are caused by drugs used to treat epilepsy. This knowledge can help to identify if the reporting of side effects is influenced by depression. Treating depression may help to reduce side effects and may thus increase the tolerability of anti-epileptic medication. People who tolerate their medication are more likely to take it and are thus less likely to develop epileptic seizure., (© 2024 The Authors. Epilepsia Open published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International League Against Epilepsy.)

Polyglucosan body myopathy-1 (PGBM1) is an extremely rare glycogen storage diseases that leads to muscle weakness and cardiomyopathy due to the accumulation of polyglucosan bodies. The clinical presentation appears to be partially dependent on the genetic mutation, but no clear genotype/phenotype correlation is currently possible. We describe a 7 year old patient, who initially presented with recurrent vomiting and respiratory infections until her first year of life. Diagnostic workup revealed an achalasia and the whole exome sequencing revealed an homozygous RBCK1 ( RANBP2-type and C3HC4-type zinc finger containing 1 ) variant (c.896_899delAGTG) located in exon 7 (mid-domain), which has also been described in 4 patients with PGBM1. The unusual presentation with gastrointestinal and respiratory symptoms before the development of progressive muscle weakness expands the phenotype of this disease., Competing Interests: The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare. All co-authors have seen and agree with the contents of the manuscript and there is no financial interest to report. We certify that the submission is original work and is not under review at any other publication., (© 2023 The Authors.)

Objective: Perampanel, an antiseizure drug with α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor antagonist properties, may have a targeted effect in genetic epilepsies with overwhelming glutamate receptor activation. Epilepsies with loss of γ-aminobutyric acid inhibition (e.g., SCN1A), overactive excitatory neurons (e.g., SCN2A, SCN8A), and variants in glutamate receptors (e.g., GRIN2A) hold special interest. We aimed to collect data from a large rare genetic epilepsy cohort treated with perampanel, to detect possible subgroups with high efficacy., Methods: This multicenter project was based on the framework of NETRE (Network for Therapy in Rare Epilepsies), a web of pediatric neurologists treating rare epilepsies. Retrospective data from patients with genetic epilepsies treated with perampanel were collected. Outcome measures were responder rate (50% seizure reduction), and percentage of seizure reduction after 3 months of treatment. Subgroups of etiologies with high efficacy were identified., Results: A total of 137 patients with 79 different etiologies, aged 2 months to 61 years (mean = 15.48 ± 9.9 years), were enrolled. The mean dosage was 6.45 ± 2.47 mg, and treatment period was 2.0 ± 1.78 years (1.5 months-8 years). Sixty-two patients (44.9%) were treated for >2 years. Ninety-eight patients (71%) were responders, and 93 (67.4%) chose to continue therapy. The mean reduction in seizure frequency was 56.61% ± 34.36%. Sixty patients (43.5%) sustained >75% reduction in seizure frequency, including 38 (27.5%) with >90% reduction in seizure frequency. The following genes showed high treatment efficacy: SCN1A, GNAO1, PIGA, PCDH19, SYNGAP1, POLG1, POLG2, and NEU1. Eleven of 17 (64.7%) patients with Dravet syndrome due to an SCN1A pathogenic variant were responders to perampanel treatment; 35.3% of them had >90% seizure reduction. Other etiologies remarkable for >90% reduction in seizures were GNAO1 and PIGA. Fourteen patients had a continuous spike and wave during sleep electroencephalographic pattern, and in six subjects perampanel reduced epileptiform activity., Significance: Perampanel demonstrated high safety and efficacy in patients with rare genetic epilepsies, especially in SCN1A, GNAO1, PIGA, PCDH19, SYNGAP1, CDKL5, NEU1, and POLG, suggesting a targeted effect related to glutamate transmission., (© 2023 The Authors. Epilepsia published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International League Against Epilepsy.)

Background: Infantile spasms belong to the group of epileptic encephalopathies that typically occur in early infancy and are often associated with severe developmental delay. Little is known about whether focal features are part of the syndrome and thus occur independently of etiology, or whether focal features always indicate a cerebral lesion., Methods: In our study we included all patients with infantile spasms documented by prolonged video-electroencephalogram (EEG) monitoring between 7/2003 and 11/2020 and analysed symptoms such as tonic posturing, clonic movements, deviation of the eyes and unilateral deviation of the mouth. These symptoms were classified as lateralizing or non-lateralizing and the correlation to the presence of a lesion was investigated., Results: Eighteen patients (9 w/9 m) were included in the study. Lateralizing tonic posturing was found in 66.6% of the patients. Deviation of the eyes to one side and unilateral deviation of the mouth were detected in 61.1% and 11.1% of patients, respectively. Taking into account all symptoms (tonic posturing, clonic movements, deviation of the eyes, unilateral deviation of the mouth), focal signs were observed in a total of 94.4%, with only half of the total patient population having a cerebral lesion., Conclusion: In our study, lateralizing symptoms in infantile spasms occurred independently of the presence of a lesion. In contrast, focal symptoms in older children or adults usually correlate with the presence and localization of a lesion. A possible hypothesis could be that the brain is still maturing in infancy., (Copyright © 2022. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Purpose: Several antiseizure drugs (ASD), especially Valproic acid (VPA), influence platelet counts and coagulation parameters. The ketogenic diet (KD), established in drug-resistant epilepsy, is combined with ASDs. Bruising and prolonged bleeding times during KD have been described, but whether hemostatic changes result from the KD or from concomitant ASDs, remains unclear. Aim of the present study was to evaluate bleeding, platelet counts and global coagulation tests prior to and during KD in childhood epilepsy., Method: Consecutive children treated with KD were systematically observed for bleeding. Serial measurements of platelet counts and global coagulation tests (APTT, PT and fibrinogen) were obtained at baseline and during KD (at 1, 3, 6 and 12 months). Children with KD monotherapy, concomitant VPA, or other ASDs were compared., Results: Among 162 children receiving KD, we observed neither bleeding in daily life nor perioperative bleeding in those undergoing surgery (n = 25). Most children had normal platelet counts and coagulation parameters. Only a few had transient mild thrombocytopenia and mildly prolonged APTT values, not indicative of a bleeding risk. Even KD combined with VPA did not cause relevant coagulopathy. Unexpectedly, we found mild thrombocytosis in 24 % of patients prior to KD, which was most pronounced in yet untreated epilepsy. Thrombocytosis steadily resolved during KD., Conclusions: During KD treatment of childhood epilepsy, we observed neither bleeding symptoms nor laboratory results indicating a bleeding risk. Unexpectedly, mild thrombocytosis was present in 24 % at baseline, normalising during KD. Thrombocytosis may reflect the underlying inflammatory process of untreated epilepsy and requires further study., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest None., (Copyright © 2020 British Epilepsy Association. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objective: The ketogenic diet (KD) is a high-fat and restricted carbohydrate diet for treating severe childhood epilepsy. In infants, breast milk is usually fully replaced by a ketogenic formula. At our center, mothers are encouraged to include breastfeeding into the KD if still breastfeeding. This retrospective study describes achievement and maintenance of ketosis with or without inclusion of breast milk. Methods: Data were retrieved from a prospective longitudinal database of children treated with KD for epilepsy analyzing infants <1 year of age. The time to achieve clinically relevant ketosis (≥2 mmol/L beta-hydroxybutyrate) was compared with and without inclusion of breast milk into standard KD. Ketosis, nutritional intakes, effectiveness, adverse effects, and successful continuation of breastfeeding were evaluated. Results: A total of 79 infants were eligible for analysis. In 20% (16), breast milk was included. Infants with breast milk included into the KD achieved relevant ketosis in 47 hours (interquartile range [IQR] 24-95) compared with 41 hours (IQR 22-70; p  = 0.779) in infants with standard KD. Beta-hydroxybutyrate at day 2 was 3.1 mmol/L (IQR 0.5-4.9) and 3.8 mmol/L (IQR 2.2-4.9). Infants with breast milk included received higher amounts of carbohydrates at baseline and calories at 3 months. Seizure freedom and adverse effects showed no relevant differences. No infections occurred in infants receiving breast milk. In two infants, KD was initiated with breast-feds after bottle-feeding KD formula. In 31%, breastfeeding was continued after the KD, and in 25%, inclusion of breast milk and breastfeeding was maintained until complete weaning. Before discharge from hospital, the amount of breast milk included was median 90 mL/day (IQR 53-203) equivalent to median 9% (IQR 6-15). Conclusions: Appropriate ketosis was achieved in most infants and maintained within 48 hours. Incorporation of breast milk into KD is feasible, safe, and effective.

Epilepsy is one of the most common and serious neurological disorders worldwide. It has no identifiable cause in approximately 50% of patients; in the other 50%, the condition may be due to a variety of etiologies and pathomechanisms. In this review, special focus is put on the prototypes of "mTORpathies": tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) and focal cortical dysplasia (FCD) type IIb. We review recent research data on mTORpathies, with emphasis on cortical tubers and FCD-like lesions (neuronal migration lines (NML)). A major pathologic aspect in the network of drug-resistant epilepsy progression is the limited myelination of the white matter observed in these lesions. Recently, an association between the myelin pathology and dysregulation of the mTOR signaling pathway was observed by several studies. The lowered myelin content was shown to correlate not only with an increased mTOR expression but also with the relative duration of epilepsy. Another recently published finding in surgical tissue from patients with drug-resistant epilepsy and malformations of cortical development is inflammation. Accumulating evidence reports persistent and complex activation of inflammatory pathways in both cortical tubers and FCD lesions. Due to the fact that cortical tubers, as well as FCD lesions, are highly epileptogenic, a possible link between chronic seizure activity and the occurrence of an inflammatory response observed within the dysplastic cortex was postulated. Previously, alterations in the levels of classical complement C1q-C3 molecules in experimental and human epilepsy have been reported, suggesting that the classical complement pathway may be a novel candidate mechanism for the underlying epileptogenic circuit mechanism.
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Objective: To compare the efficacy and safety of the ketogenic diet (KD) with standard adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) treatment in infants with West syndrome., Methods: In this parallel-cohort (PC) randomized controlled trial (RCT), infants were randomly allocated to KD or high-dose ACTH. Those who could not be randomized were followed in a PC. Primary end point was electroclinical remission at day 28. Secondary end points were time to electroclinical remission, relapse after initial response, seizure freedom at last follow-up, adverse effects, and developmental progress., Results: One hundred one infants were included: 32 in the RCT (16 KD; 16 ACTH) and 69 in the PC (37 KD; 32 ACTH). Electroclinical remission at day 28 was similar between KD and ACTH (RCT: 62% vs 69%; PC: 41% vs 38%; combined cohort: 47% vs 48%; KD vs ACTH, respectively). In the combined cohort, time to electroclinical remission was similar between both treatments (14 days for KD, 16 days for ACTH). However, relapse rates were 16% (KD) and 43% (ACTH, P = 0.09), and seizure freedom at last follow-up was 40% (KD) and 27% (ACTH, P = 0.18). Adverse effects needing acute medical intervention occurred more often with ACTH (30% with KD, 94% with ACTH, P < 0.001). Age-appropriate psychomotor development and adaptive behavior were similar. Without prior vigabatrin (VGB) treatment, remission at day 28 was 47% (KD) and 80% (ACTH, P = 0.02); relapse rates were 29% (KD) and 56% (ACTH, P = 0.13). Consequently, seizure freedom at last follow-up was similar. In infants with prior VGB, seizure freedom at last follow-up was 48% (KD) and 21% (ACTH, P = 0.05)., Significance: The study is underpowered; therefore, its results should be interpreted with caution. KD is as effective as ACTH in the long term but is better tolerated. Without prior VGB treatment, ACTH remains the first choice to achieve short-term remission. However, with prior VGB, KD was at least as effective as ACTH in the short term and was associated with lower relapse rates in the long term; therefore, it represents an appropriate second-line treatment after VGB., (Wiley Periodicals, Inc. © 2019 International League Against Epilepsy.)

Objective: To evaluate prospectively the informative/prognostic value of epileptic discharges in the post-resection ECoGs of children with drug-resistant epilepsies and Focal Cortical Dysplasia type II (FCD-II)., Methods: Included were consecutive patients with focal epilepsies and suspected FCD-II who were planned for single-stage epilepsy surgery based on non-invasive presurgical evaluation results. Intraoperative ECoGs were recorded using a 32-channel system with strip- and/or grid-electrodes. Spikes were defined as transients with a mainly negative component and duration of 20-70 ms. Fast activity was defined as rhythmic bursts of polyspikes >13 Hz. All ECoGs were analysed visually. The significance of both spikes and fast activity in the post-resection ECoG for seizure outcomes 24 months after surgery was evaluated., Results: Data from 18 patients (five girls) were analysed. 10/18 patients (55.6%) showed spikes in their post-resection ECoGs, five of them showed additional fast activity. 24 months after surgery, 12/18 patients (66.7%) were seizure-free. There was a significant correlation between unfavorable seizure outcomes and fast activity in the post-resection ECoGs (p = 0.009), whereas spikes alone were not predictive (p = 0.502)., Conclusion: Even when recorded with non-sophisticated techniques, presence of fast activity in post-resection ECoGs might be a valid negative outcome-predictor after surgery in paediatric patients with FCD-II associated drug-resistant epilepsies., Significance: Fast activity recorded with a relatively simple ECoG equipment seems also to have prognostic significance and by this might be an alternative to HFOs recorded with highly sophisticated and expensive technologies., (Copyright © 2018 International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is the most common cause of West syndrome (WS). Currently available treatment options are ineffective in the majority of affected infants and/or associated with potential serious side effects. Based on the assumption that mTOR overactivation results in increased neuroexcitability in TSC, mTOR inhibitors have been studied as antiseizure therapy. As a result, everolimus recently received approval for the adjunctive treatment of patients aged ≥2 years with refractory TSC-associated focal and secondary generalized seizures. However, efficacy and safety data for infants with TSC-associated WS are still lacking. Therefore, a prospective open-label observational study was initiated at our center, to evaluate everolimus add-on treatment in infants with TSC-associated WS, previously refractory to standard treatment. For this preliminary report, data from four male infants with TSC2 and a median observation period of 13 (range = 8-42) months after treatment initiation were analyzed. Two infants showed electroclinical remission until day 14 after everolimus treatment initiation. In one additional infant, hypsarrhythmia resolved. No relapse after initial response was documented. Developmental progress improved in three infants. Tolerability was similar to that described in older children. According to our preliminary results, everolimus appears to have the potential to treat successfully both spasms and hypsarrhythmia in infants with TSC-associated WS, contributing to better developmental progress., (Wiley Periodicals, Inc. © 2018 International League Against Epilepsy.)

Purpose: To evaluate the efficacy and safety of epilepsy surgery in infants., Methods: Included were patients with epilepsy onset during the first year of life, epilepsy surgery before the age of 36 months at the study center and a minimum follow-up of 24 months after surgery. Patients who were surgically treated before the age of 12 months were compared with those between 13 and 36 months. Group differences with respect to efficacy (seizure outcomes and developmental progress measured by the social interaction quotient, SIQ) as well as safety (i. e. peri-operative complication rates) were analyzed., Results: A total of 20 patients (10 girls) were included: 10 (five girls) were operated on as infants (median age at surgery 9.0 months, median disease duration prior to surgery 5.0 months) and 10 (5 girls) were operated on as toddlers (median age at surgery 24.0 months, median disease duration prior to surgery 18.0 months). Favorable seizure outcomes (Wieser 1a and 1) were seen in 80% (8/10) of the infants and 60.0% (6/10) of toddlers. Developmental progress was most evident in infants who were seizure-free and off medication (median SIQ 85.5 versus 63.0 in the toddler group). There were no differences between the two groups with respect to safety aspects., Conclusion: Despite several limitations due to the small number of patients included, our results are in favor of early epilepsy surgery in infants with drug-resistant epilepsy.

Objective: Ketogenic parenteral nutrition (kPN) is indicated when enteral intake is temporarily limited or impossible, but evidence-based prescriptions are lacking. Objective was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of kPN in children with epileptic encephalopathies using a new computer-based algorithm for accurate component calculating., Methods: Children with epilepsy receiving kPN were included. A computer-based algorithm was established on the basis of guidelines of the European Society for Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN): fat intake not exceeding 4 g/kg/day, age-adequate supply of protein, electrolytes, vitamins, and trace elements, but reduced carbohydrates. Primary outcome was successfully reaching relevant ketosis, defined as beta-hydroxybutyrate plasma level of ≥ 2 mmol/L. Efficacy was defined as seizure reduction ≥50% in de novo kPN and maintenance of response in children already on a ketogenic diet (KD). Safety was assessed by adverse effects, laboratory findings, and the appropriateness of nutritional intake., Results: Seventeen children (median 1.84 years) were studied, of which 76% (13/17) were already on an oral ketogenic diet. Indications for kPN were surgery, status epilepticus, vomiting, food refusal, and introduction of enteral feeding in neonates. The parenteral fat/nonfat ratio was mean 0.9 (±0.3; range 0.6-1.5). Relevant ketosis was reached in 10 children (median 2.9 mmol/L), but not in 7 (median = 1.4 mmol/L). In de novo kPN, significant response was observed in 50% (2/4); in patients previously responding to the KD (77%, 10/13), response was maintained. A significant correlation between the degree of ketosis and seizure reduction (correlation coefficient = 0.691; p = .002) was observed. Only mild and transient adverse events occurred during kPN., Significance: KPN with fat intake of 3.5-4.0 g/kg/day was safe and effective. KPN was tailored according to guidelines and individual nutritional needs. In nearly half of the patients, ketosis was lower than during oral KD. Despite this, seizures remained controlled.

Conventional antiepileptic drugs suppress the excessive firing of neurons during seizures. In drug-resistant patients, treatment failure indicates an alternative important epileptogenic trigger. Two epilepsy-associated pathologies show myelin deficiencies in seizure-related brain regions: Focal Cortical Dysplasia IIB (FCD) and cortical tubers in Tuberous Sclerosis Complex (TSC). Studies uncovering white matter-pathology mechanisms are therefore urgently needed to gain more insight into epileptogenesis, the propensity to maintain seizures, and their associated comorbidities such as cognitive defects. We analyzed epilepsy surgery specimens of FCD IIB (n = 22), TSC (n = 8), and other malformations of cortical development MCD (n = 12), and compared them to autopsy and biopsy cases (n = 15). The entire lesional pathology was assessed using digital immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence and western blotting for oligodendroglial lineage, myelin and mTOR markers, and findings were correlated to clinical parameters. White matter pathology with depleted myelin and oligodendroglia were found in 50% of FCD IIB and 62% of TSC cases. Other MCDs had either a normal content or even showed reactive oligodendrolial hyperplasia. Furthermore, myelin deficiency was associated with increased mTOR expression and the lower amount of oligodendroglia was linked with their precursor cells (PDGFRa). The relative duration of epilepsy (normalized to age) also correlated positively to mTOR activation and negatively to myelination. Decreased content of oligodendroglia and missing precursor cells indicated insufficient oligodendroglial development, probably mediated by mTOR, which may ultimately lead to severe myelin loss. In terms of disease management, an early and targeted treatment could restore normal myelin development and, therefore, alter seizure threshold and improve cognitive outcome., (© 2016 The Authors. Brain Pathology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of International Society of Neuropathology.)

Aim: To study the effect of hemispherotomy on electrical status epilepticus in sleep (ESES) and language development., Method: Children with a confirmed diagnosis of ESES prior to surgery and a minimum of 24 months of developmental follow-up data were compared with age-matched controls without ESES. Language quotients (LQs) were calculated before and after surgery., Results: Eleven patients (five females, six males) and 21 controls (11 females, 10 males) were included. Before surgery a significantly higher number of children in the study group (n=9) demonstrated severe developmental delay compared with children in the control group (n=13; p=0.015). In the study group ESES remitted immediately after surgery in 10 children, and a significant catch-up in LQs was observed in this group (preoperative mean 40.0 [standard deviation (SD) 22.2, interquartile range (IQR) 30.0-62.0]; postoperative mean 73.0 [SD 33.5, IQR 41.0-97.0]; p=0.037). There was no significant difference compared with controls at last follow-up after surgery (study group: five with severe impairment; control group: eight with severe impairment [p=0.971]). Overall, a favourable developmental outcome was associated with freedom from seizures (seizure-free group: median preoperative LQ 61.5, median postoperative LQ 78.0 [p=0.017]; seizure group: median preoperative LQ 35.5, median postoperative LQ 56.5 [p=0.273]) and antiepileptic drug withdrawal (off medication: median preoperative LQ 49.5, median postoperative LQ 78.0 [p=0.011]; on medication: median preoperative LQ 78.0, median postoperative LQ 83.5 [p=0.889])., Interpretation: Children with ESES showed significantly lower preoperative language abilities than children without ESES. In cases with remission of ESES after surgery, marked improvement in LQs was noticed. This improvement cannot be fully explained by seizure-freedom alone as seizure-free children without preoperative ESES showed less improvement., (© 2016 Mac Keith Press.)

OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to investigate whether fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucose PET ( 18 F-FDG PET) can help to predict seizure outcome after hemispherotomy and therefore may be useful in decision making and patient selection. METHODS Children and adolescents less than 18 years of age who underwent 18 F-FDG PET studies during presurgical evaluation prior to hemispherotomy and had follow-up data of at least 12 months after surgery were included. Seizure outcome was classified according to the recommendations of the International League Against Epilepsy. PET data were reevaluated by two specialists in nuclear medicine blinded to clinical data and to MRI. MRI studies were also reinterpreted visually by an experienced neuroradiologist blinded to clinical data and PET findings. RESULTS Thirty-five patients (17 girls) with a median age of 5 years (range 0.4-17.8 years) were evaluable. Of the 35 patients, 91.4% were seizure free after surgery, including 100% of those with unilateral 18 F-FDG-PET hypometabolism compared with only 75% of those with bilateral hypometabolism. With respect to MRI, seizure freedom after surgery was observed in 96.4% of the patients with unilateral lesions compared with only 71.4% in those with bilateral MRI lesions. The best seizure outcomes were noted in patients with unilateral findings in both PET and MRI (100% seizure freedom) whereas only 50% of those with bilateral findings in both imaging techniques were seizure free. Furthermore, 100% of the patients with unilateral PET hypometabolism and bilateral MRI findings were also seizure free, but only 87.5% of those with bilateral PET hypometabolism and unilateral MRI findings. CONCLUSIONS According to these results, candidate selection for hemispherotomy can be optimized by the use of 18 F-FDG PET as part of a multimodal presurgical evaluation program, especially in patients with inconsistent (bilateral) MRI findings.

Background: Epilepsy occurs in up to 90 % of all individuals with tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC). In 67 % disease onset is during childhood. In ≥ 50 % seizures are refractory to currently available treatment options. The mTOR-Inhibitor Everolimus (Votubia®) was approved for the treatment of subependymal giant cell astrocytoma (SEGA) and renal angiomyolipoma (AML) in Europe in 2011. It's anticonvulsive/antiepileptic properties are promising, but evidence is still limited. Study aim was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of Everolimus in children and adolescents with TSC-associated epilepsies., Methods: Inclusion-criteria of this investigator-initiated, single-center, open, prospective study were: 1) the ascertained diagnosis of TSC; 2) age ≤ 18 years; 3) treatment indication for Votubia® according to the European Commission guidelines; 4) drug-resistant TSC-associated epilepsy, 5) prospective continuous follow-up for at least 6 months after treatment initiation and 6) informed consent to participate. Votubia® was orally administered once/day, starting with 4.5 mg/m 2 and titrated to achieve blood trough concentrations between 5 and 15 ng/ml. Primary endpoint was the reduction in seizure frequency of ≥ 50 % compared to baseline., Results: Fifteen patients (nine male) with a median age of six (range; 1-18) years fulfilled the inclusion criteria. 26 % (4/15) had TSC1, 66 % (10/15) had TSC2 mutations. In one patient no mutation was found. Time of observation after treatment initiation was median 22 (range; 6-50) months. At last observation, 80 % (12/15) of the patients were responders, 58 % of them (7/12) were seizure free. The overall reduction in seizure frequency was 60 % in focal seizures, 80 % in generalized tonic clonic seizures and 87 % in drop attacks. The effect of Everolimus was seen already at low doses, early after treatment initiation. Loss of efficacy over time was not observed. Transient side effects were seen in 93 % (14/15) of the patients. In no case the drug had to be withdrawn., Conclusion: Everolimus seems to be an effective treatment option not only for SEGA and AML, but also for TSC-related epilepsies. Although there are potential serious side effects, treatment was tolerated well by the majority of patients, provided that patients are under close surveillance of epileptologists who are familiar with immunosuppressive agents.

Objective: Hippocampal Sclerosis (HS) is widely recognized as a significant underlying cause of drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) in adults. In contrast, HS is a rare finding in pediatric surgical series, and a higher incidence of HS associated with cortical dysplasia (i.e. FCD type IIIa according to the new ILAE classification) than in adult series has been reported. Data about the electro-clinical characteristics of this subgroup are scarce., Methods: We studied 15 children and adolescents with drug-resistant TLE and HS who had anterior temporal lobe resection at our center with regard to electroclinical characteristics, MRI features and histopathology. Children in whom histopathology was consistent with Focal Cortical Dysplasia (FCD) type IIIa (n = 7) were compared with those who had HS only (n = 8)., Results: Clinical characteristics associated with this highly selective subset of patients with FCD type IIIa were: the presence of febrile seizures during infancy, a shorter duration of active epilepsy and a lower age at epilepsy surgery. In addition, there were non-significant trends towards more extended abnormalities on both EEG and neuroimaging. We were, however, not able to find group differences with respect to neuropathologic subtyping of the HS., Conclusion: We present the first detailed description and comprehensive data analysis of children with FCD type IIIa. According to our results, this patient group seems to show a distinct clinical phenotype., (Copyright © 2016 European Paediatric Neurology Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To evaluate the efficacy and safety of the ketogenic diet (KD) in infants (< 1.5 years of age) compared with older children., Methods: Patients with complete follow-up data of ≥ 3 months after initiation of the KD were analyzed retrospectively. Infants < 1.5 years at initiation of the KD (Group A) were compared with children > 1.5 years (Group B)., Results: 127 children were screened, 115 (Group A: 58/Group B: 57) were included. There were no significant differences between groups with respect to responder rates (63.8% vs. 57.9% at 3 months), but more infants became seizure free (34.5% vs. 19% at 3 months; 32.7% vs. 17.5% at 6 and 12 months). This result remained stable also after termination of the KD (30.6% vs. 3.9% at last follow-up) (p = 0.000). Looking at infants < 9 months of age separately (n = 42), this result was even stronger with significantly more infants being seizure free at 6 and at 12 months (p = 0.005, p = 0.014, respectively). In addition, a significantly higher number of infants remained seizure free in the long-term (p = 0.001). No group differences between infants and children with respect to safety were observed. Overall 52/115 patients (45.21%) reported side effects, but withdrawal of the KD was only necessary in one infant. Acceptance of the KD was better in infants compared with children at 3 months (0 vs. 14, p = 0.000), but became difficult when solid food was introduced (16 vs. 14; n.s.)., Significance: According to our results, the KD is highly effective and well tolerated in infants with epilepsy. Seizure freedom is more often achieved and maintained in infants. Acceptance of the diet is better before the introduction of solid food. Therefore, we recommend the early use of the KD during the course of epilepsy., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: To investigate language development after functional hemispherotomy and to evaluate prognostic factors for (un-)favourable outcomes., Methods: Children and adolescents who had vertical perithalamic hemispherotomy at the Medical University Wien (MUW) paediatric epilepsy centre were identified from a prospectively maintained database. Inclusion criteria were: complete clinical, neurophysiological and neuropsychological data, seizure freedom and a minimum follow-up of 12 months after surgery. The language quotients (LQ) prior to surgery and at last follow-up were calculated for each child. In addition, associations between pre- to post-surgical changes in LQ and the following variables were examined: age at epilepsy-onset, age at surgery and duration of epilepsy prior to surgery, aetiology, side of surgery, interictal EEG including sleep organization before and 12 months after surgery and antiepileptic-drug (AED) withdrawal state at last follow-up. Analyses were carried out in SPSS version 20.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Nonparametric Wilcoxon and chi-square tests were applied, as required., Results: Data from 28 children (14 female) were analyzed. The median age at epilepsy surgery was 64.5 months. The median follow-up after surgery was 3.0 years (±2.6 years, range 12 months to 12 years). Significant gains in LQs at last follow-up were found in 31% of the children (p=0.008). Short disease duration prior to surgery, acquired pathology, lack of epileptiform EEG discharges in the contralateral hemisphere and/or normalization of EEG sleep patterns after surgery, and successful AED withdrawal were linked to favourable language outcomes., Conclusion: Successful and early hemispherotomy results in improvement of language function in the intact hemisphere., (Copyright © 2015 British Epilepsy Association. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Unlabelled: There is strong evidence for the use of the ketogenic diet (KD) in Dravet syndrome (DS). The purpose of this study was to evaluate both effectiveness and tolerability in comparison with various antiepileptic drugs (AEDs)., Methods: 32 children (19 males) with genetically confirmed DS treated at our center since 1999 were analyzed retrospectively. Data collected from patients' files included type of mutation, age at treatment initiation and treatment lag, overall seizure frequency and frequency of different seizure types, especially prolonged seizures and status epilepticus (SE). Efficacy and safety of the KD were evaluated. In addition, the effect on seizure count was compared with that of various AED regimen and the vagus nerve stimulation (VNS)., Results: Overall response to the KD was 70% at 3 months and 60% at 12 months. No SE occurred while patients were on the diet, and the frequencies of prolonged generalized and myoclonic seizures were reduced. No severe side effects requiring withdrawal of the KD were observed. Although the effect of the KD was independent of age at initiation, it had to be withdrawn due to noncompliance more frequently in solid fed older children compared with infants treated with the liquid ketogenic formula. The KD was not significantly inferior to the current gold standard AED triple combination of Stiripentol+Valproate+Clobazam (89%), Bromides (78%), Valproate alone (48%), Topiramate (35%) and VNS (37%) and significantly more effective than Levetiracetam (30%; p=0.037, Pearson's Chi-square)., Significance: These data suggest that the KD ranks among currently used AEDs as an effective treatment for seizures in DS. According to our results (good effect on SE and prolonged seizures, good tolerability, less compliance problems due to formula treatment) the KD should be considered as an early treatment option in infants with DS., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Unlabelled: To determine long-term efficacy and safety of epilepsy surgery in children and adolescents with malformations of cortical development (MCD) and to identify differences in seizure outcome of the various MCD subgroups. Special focus was set on the newly introduced International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) classification of focal cortical dysplasia (FCD)., Study Design: This is a single center retrospective cross-sectional analysis of prospectively collected data., Inclusion Criteria: age at surgery <18 years, pre-surgical evaluation and epilepsy surgery performed at the Vienna pediatric epilepsy center, histologically proven MCD, complete follow-up data for at least 12 months. Clinical variables evaluated: type and localization of MCD, type of surgery and a variety of clinical characteristics reported to be associated with (un-)favorable outcomes. MCD were classified following the existing classification schemes (Barkovich et al., 2012. Brain. 135, 1348-1369; Palmini et al., 2004. Neurology. 62, S2-S8) and the ILAE classification for FCD recently proposed by Blümcke in 2011. Seizure outcome was classified using the ILAE classification proposed by Wieser in 2001., Results: 60 Patients (51.7% male) were included. Follow up was up to 14 (mean 4.4 ± 3.2) years. Mean age at surgery was 8.0 ± 6.0 (median 6.0) years; mean age at epilepsy onset was 2.9 ± 3.2 (median 2.0) years; duration of epilepsy before surgery was 4.8 ± 4.4 (median 3.0) years. 80% of the patients were seizure free at last follow-up. AEDs were successfully withdrawn in 56.7% of all patients. Extended surgery, lesion localization in the temporal lobes and absence of inter-ictal spikes in postsurgical EEG recordings were predictive of favorable seizure outcomes after surgery. However, no association was found between outcome and MCD sub-types. Epilepsy surgery is highly effective in carefully selected drug-resistant children with MCD. Surrogate markers for complete resection of the epileptogenic zone remain the only significant predictors for seizure freedom after surgery., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: The current concept for hemispherotomy includes various lateral techniques and the vertical perithalamic hemispherotomy introduced by Delalande in 1992. We have chosen the vertical approach because of advantages that possibly influence outcome: the possibility to completely disconnect the hemisphere at the level of the thalamus obviating both the need to resect the insula and the need to open and dissect the subarachnoid space of the Sylvian fissure., Methods: We retrospectively analyzed prospectively collected data of all patients who underwent vertical hemispherotomy at the Vienna pediatric epilepsy center. Seizure outcome was classified according to the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) proposal 2001., Key Findings: Follow-up data of 40 patients (22 male/18 female; median age 5.5 years; range 4.4 months to 20.1 years) were analyzed. Hemispherotomy was left in 26 and right in 14 patients. The underlying pathology was ischemic vascular in 19, malformation of cortical development (MCD) in 11, and other pathology in 10. No serious intraoperative complications were encountered. Only two infants (5.0%) needed blood replacement. There was one death on the fourth day after surgery caused by intractable hyponatremic brain edema. Three patients developed cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) disturbances, but only one needed a permanent ventriculoperitoneal (VP) shunt (2.5%). For outcome analysis we included 37 of 40 children with at least 12 months of follow-up. Thirty-four (91.9%) of 37 children were seizure-free (class 1a) after a median follow-up time of 3.7 years (range 12 month to 14.8 years)., Significance: We confirm the efficacy and safety of vertical parasagittal hemispherotomy as described by Delalande in a consecutive series of patients treated at our center since 1998. In addition, complete disconnection of the hemisphere in patients with MCD and/or patients with significant involvement of the insula was possible without the complications usually reported with other techniques., (Wiley Periodicals, Inc. © 2013 International League Against Epilepsy.)

Object: Outcomes following functional hemispherotomy in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy have been well described. However, studies reporting long-term longitudinal outcomes after subhemispheric disconnective epilepsy surgery are still limited., Methods: The authors conducted a retrospective review of prospectively collected data of 10 children who underwent temporoparietooccipital (TPO) disconnective surgery at the Vienna Pediatric Epilepsy Center., Results: There were 3 males and 7 females (median age 8.7 years; range 4.2-22.1 years). The affected hemisphere was the left in 3 patients and the right in 7. The patients' median age at seizure onset was 3.0 years (range 0.2-8.3 years). The median duration of epilepsy before surgery was 5.2 years (range 1.3-17.2 years). The underlying pathology was TPO malformation of cortical development in 5 patients, and venous infarction, posterior hemispheric quadrant atrophy, Sturge-Weber syndrome, cortical involvement of a systemic lupus erythematosus, and gliosis after cerebral tumor treatment in 1 each. In 6 children, a pure TPO disconnection was performed; in 2 patients, the temporal lobe was resected and parietooccipital disconnection was performed. The 2 remaining patients had had previous epilepsy surgery that was extended to a TPO disconnection: disconnection of the occipital lobe (n = 1) and resection of the temporal lobe (n = 1). The authors encountered no complications while performing surgery. No patient needed blood replacement therapy. No patient developed CSF disturbances that warranted treatment. Nine of 10 patients are currently seizure free since surgery (Wieser Class 1a) at a median follow-up time of 2.1 years (range 4 months to 8.1 years)., Conclusions: Temporoparietooccipital disconnection is a safe and effective motor-sparing epilepsy surgery in selected cases. Technical adjuncts facilitate a better intraoperative visualization and orientation, thereby enabling a less invasive approach than previously suggested.

Purpose: A focal lesion in the splenium of the corpus callosum is a rare finding in patients with epilepsy. Intoxication with antiepileptic drugs, edema after generalized seizures, or a rapid change of antiepileptic drug levels have been proposed as possible mechanisms. The aim of the present study was to analyze the relationship between this lesion and possible etiologic factors., Patients and Methods: We analyzed the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of 1,050 patients undergoing prolonged video-EEG (electroencephalography) monitoring and identified 24 patients with a focal lesion in the splenium of the corpus callosum. Twenty-four age- and gender-matched temporal lobe epilepsy patients without such a lesion served as a control group. We evaluated the following parameters for their possible etiologic significance: epilepsy syndrome, seizure types in medical history, seizure frequency during the past year prior to admission for prolonged video-EEG monitoring, localization of interictal spikes and ictal EEG patterns in patients with focal epilepsies as documented during prolonged video-EEG-monitoring, seizure types and seizure frequency during prolonged video-EEG monitoring, past as well as current antiepileptic medication, withdrawal of antiepileptic drugs during monitoring including duration of medication withdrawal, and finally drug levels above the therapeutic range., Results: The parameters analyzed showed no significant difference between the group of patients with focal lesions in the splenium of the corpus callosum and the control group., Conclusion: We could not identify a single etiologic factor responsible for the lesion in the splenium of the corpus callosum.

Purpose: To determine the frequency and lateralizing value of clinical seizure symptoms in children and adolescents with drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE)., Methods: Patients enrolled had to be <18 years of age and seizure free at follow-up for at least 12 months after epilepsy surgery. Patients were assigned to two age groups, children (age<12 years) and adolescents (age>12 and <18 years). Video-tapes were reviewed blinded to patients' demographic data and results of additional investigations by two independent raters. Clinical signs of known lateralizing significance in adults and additional clinical signs without lateralizing value were assessed., Results: 14 patients (eight boys; 2-18 years) fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Inter-observer agreement was excellent (kappa coefficient: 0.82). Compared with adult series, no differences were found concerning overall occurrence of lateralizing signs and lateralizing accuracy. There were age-related differences, however, concerning the occurrence of individual signs: secondary generalization, complex automatisms and version were less frequent in children than in adolescents., Conclusions: Clinical signs of lateralizing value can also be found in children and adolescents, provided that the evaluation protocols used consider developmental aspects.

Purpose: Ictal vomiting represents a rare clinical manifestation during seizures originating from the temporal lobes of the nondominant hemisphere. The precise anatomic structures responsible for generation of ictal vomiting remain to be clarified. Ictal single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), which allows one to visualize the three-dimensional dynamic changes of regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) associated with the ongoing epileptic activity, should be useful to study the brain areas activated during ictal vomiting., Methods: We performed ictal Tc-HMPAO SPECT scans in two patients with mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE) whose seizures were characterized by ictal retching and vomiting. MTLE was documented by typical clinical seizure semiology, interictal and ictal EEG findings, hippocampal atrophy on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan, and a seizure-free outcome after selective amydalohippocampectomy. In both patients, seizures originated in the nondominant temporal lobe. We obtained accurate anatomic reference of rCBF changes visible on SPECT by a special coregistration technique of MRI and SPECT. We used ictal SPECT studies in 10 patients with MTLE who had seizures without ictal vomiting as controls., Results: In the two patients with ictal vomiting, we found a significant hyperperfusion of the nondominant temporal lobe (inferior, medial, and lateral superior) and of the occipital region on ictal SPECT. In patients without ictal vomiting, on the contrary, these brain regions never were hyperperfused simultaneously., Conclusions: Ictal SPECT provides further evidence that activation of a complex cortical network, including the medial and lateral superior aspects of the temporal lobe, and maybe the occipital lobes, is responsible for the generation of ictal vomiting.

Purpose: To study the mechanisms of startle-induced supplementary sensorimotor area (SSMA) seizures., Methods: We present a patient investigated with indwelling subdural grid electrodes covering both the SSMA and the dorsolateral frontal lobe., Results: We found a simultaneous seizure onset in the right dorsolateral premotor cortex and the right SSMA. High-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showed a small subcortical lesion adjacent to the right SSMA. The patient became seizure free after resection of the lesion and the ictal-onset zone., Conclusions: We conclude that an extended region of abnormally excitable tissue within the frontal lobe could facilitate the generation of startle-induced seizures. We speculate that a widespread epileptogenic zone could help to explain why some patients with SSMA or dorsolateral frontal lobe seizures are more likely to have startle-induced seizures.

Purpose: To develop a classification system of psychogenic seizures based on characteristic clinical symptom clusters and sequences in order to facilitate the correct differential diagnosis of epileptic seizures., Methods: We analysed the symptoms: clonic movements, hypermotor movements, trembling and tonic posturing of the upper/lower extremities, pelvic thrusting, stiffening of the body, version, side-to-side-head movements, non-versive head-turning and falling to the floor. We did this in a series of 16 patients with psychogenic seizures documented with prolonged video EEG monitoring. Nine patients (7 with frontal lobe epilepsy and 2 with primary generalised epilepsy with tonic, clonic seizures) served as a control group., Results: We classified psychogenic seizures into 3 groups, namely (1) atonic psychogenic seizures, (2) psychogenic motor seizures and (3) psychogenic hypermotor seizures characterised by (1) falling to the ground, (2) trembling in the upper/lower extremities and (3) pelvic thrusting in combination with beating and kicking. While version exclusively occurred in epileptic seizures (incidence = 20%) and side-to-side head movements were only observed during psychogenic seizures (incidence = 8%), all other analysed symptoms were observed in both psychogenic and epileptic seizures., Conclusion: Our classification scheme should be useful in terms of permitting a more comprehensive clinical assessment of psychogenic seizures and their underlying psychiatric disorders. Furthermore, the differential diagnosis of psychogenic seizures should be considerably improved.

We determined the interrelations of chronological age, age at seizure onset, duration of seizure disorder, cognitive functioning (IQ), scales of activities of daily living, depressive mood disorder and measures of health-related quality of life (HRQOL). Furthermore, we investigated the association of the laterality of seizure onset zone and absence/presence of hippocampal atrophy and/or sclerosis (HA/HS) with measures of HRQOL, activities of daily living (ADL) and depressive mood disorder. In the setting of pre-surgical epilepsy evaluation, a sample of 56 patients with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) was studied using the Bonner Skalen für Epilepsie (BPSE) and the depression inventory D-S of von Zerssen. Patients reported high levels of dependency on others and poor coping capabilities. Our data also showed specific ADL-behaviour suggesting social withdrawal and isolation. Our results indicate emotional impairment as a major problem in TLE, because 45% of our patients scored in the depressive range of the D-S depression scale. Depression score was found to be a powerful predictor of self-reported quality of life after adjusting for seizure-related variables, demographic variables and cognitive functioning (IQ). The only scale showing a significant laterality effect was ADL-home. No relationship between the dependent measures of HRQOL, ADL-social, ADL-cultural, depressive mood disorder and laterality of the epileptogenic zone or absence/presence of HA/HS was found. HRQOL and depressive mood disorder are strongly interrelated indicating that patients with depressive symptoms report lower quality of life and specific patterns of ADL. HRQOL, ADL and depressive mood disorder are largely independent of biological markers such as laterality of seizure onset zone and absence/presence of HA/HS in TLE., (Copyright 1999 British Epilepsy Association.)