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Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis is a fatal interstitial lung disease characterized by the TGF-β (transforming growth factor-β)-dependent differentiation of lung fibroblasts into myofibroblasts, which leads to excessive deposition of collagen proteins and progressive scarring. We have previously shown that synthesis of collagen by myofibroblasts requires de novo synthesis of glycine, the most abundant amino acid found in collagen protein. TGF-β upregulates the expression of the enzymes of the de novo serine-glycine synthesis pathway in lung fibroblasts; however, the transcriptional and signaling regulators of this pathway remain incompletely understood. Here, we demonstrate that TGF-β promotes accumulation of ATF4 (activating transcription factor 4), which is required for increased expression of the serine-glycine synthesis pathway enzymes in response to TGF-β. We found that induction of the integrated stress response (ISR) contributes to TGF-β-induced ATF4 activity; however, the primary driver of ATF4 downstream of TGF-β is activation of mTORC1 (mTOR Complex 1). TGF-β activates the PI3K-Akt-mTOR pathway, and inhibition of PI3K prevents activation of downstream signaling and induction of ATF4. Using a panel of mTOR inhibitors, we found that ATF4 activation is dependent on mTORC1, independent of mTORC2. Rapamycin, which incompletely and allosterically inhibits mTORC1, had no effect on TGF-β-mediated induction of ATF4; however, Rapalink-1, which specifically targets the kinase domain of mTORC1, completely inhibited ATF4 induction and metabolic reprogramming downstream of TGF-β. Our results provide insight into the mechanisms of metabolic reprogramming in myofibroblasts and clarify contradictory published findings on the role of mTOR inhibition in myofibroblast differentiation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Macrophage effector function is dynamic in nature and largely dependent on not only the type of immunological challenge but also the tissue-specific environment and developmental origin of a given macrophage population. Recent research has highlighted the importance of glycolytic metabolism in the regulation of effector function as a common feature associated with macrophage activation. Yet, most research has used macrophage cell lines and bone marrow-derived macrophages, which do not account for the diversity of macrophage populations and the role of tissue specificity in macrophage immunometabolism. Tissue-resident alveolar macrophages (TR-AMs) reside in an environment characterized by remarkably low glucose concentrations, making glycolysislinked immunometabolism an inefficient and unlikely means of immune activation. In this study, we show that TR-AMs rely on oxidative phosphorylation to meet their energy demands and maintain extremely low levels of glycolysis under steady-state conditions. Unlike bone marrow-derived macrophages, TR-AMs did not experience enhanced glycolysis in response to LPS, and glycolytic inhibition had no effect on their proinflammatory cytokine production. Hypoxia-inducible factor 1a stabilization promoted glycolysis in TR-AMs and shifted energy production away from oxidative metabolism at baseline, but it was not sufficient for TR-AMs to mount further increases in glycolysis or enhance immune function in response to LPS. Importantly, we confirmed these findings in an in vivo influenza model in which infiltrating macrophages had significantly higher glycolytic and proinflammatory gene expression than TR-AMs. These findings demonstrate that glycolysis is dispensable for macrophage effector function in TR-AM and highlight the importance of macrophage tissue origin (tissue resident vs. recruited) in immunometabolism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is characterized by the transforming growth factor (TGF)-b-dependent differentiation of lung fibroblasts into myofibroblasts, leading to excessive deposition of extracellular matrix proteins, which distort lung architecture and function. Metabolic reprogramming in myofibroblasts is emerging as an important mechanism in the pathogenesis of IPF, and recent evidence suggests that glutamine metabolism is required in myofibroblasts, although the exact role of glutamine in myofibroblasts is unclear. In the present study, we demonstrate that glutamine and its conversion to glutamate by glutaminase are required for TGF-b-induced collagen protein production in lung fibroblasts. We found that metabolism of glutamate to a-ketoglutarate by glutamate dehydrogenase or the glutamatepyruvate or glutamate-oxaloacetate transaminases is not required for collagen protein production. Instead, we discovered that the glutamate-consuming enzymes phosphoserine aminotransferase 1 (PSAT1) and aldehyde dehydrogenase 18A1 (ALDH18A1)/D1- pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthetase (P5CS) are required for collagen protein production by lung fibroblasts. PSAT1 is required for de novo glycine production, whereas ALDH18A1/P5CS is required for de novo proline production. Consistent with this, we found that TGF-b treatment increased cellular concentrations of glycine and proline in lung fibroblasts. Our results suggest that glutamine metabolism is required to promote amino acid biosynthesis and not to provide intermediates such as a-ketoglutarate for oxidation in mitochondria. In support of this, we found that inhibition of glutaminolysis has no effect on cellular oxygen consumption and that knockdown of oxoglutarate dehydrogenase has no effect on the ability of fibroblasts to produce collagen protein. Our results suggest that amino acid biosynthesis pathways may represent novel therapeutic targets for treatment of fibrotic diseases, including IPF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]