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Paru aussi en version française : https://doi.org/10.4000/rga.10664; International audience; Throughout the 20th century, the development of the Vicdessos valley (department of Ariège, French Pyrenees) was oriented almost exclusively towards the aluminum industry, leading to the decline and then total disappearance of local cheese production. Once renowned, Auzat cheese, made from sheep and then cow's milk, was an important resource in the local economy until the middle of the 20th century. Based on documentary research, interviews and ethnographic observations, this article traces the social biography of this cheese since the middle of the 19th century. It analyzes the conditions of the decline of its production and the blurring of its memory. While, for the last twenty years, this post-industrial valley has turned towards the development of tourism, the article provides an understanding of the constraints that have prevented any renewal of cheese production until recently. Indeed, since the end of the 2010s, several initiatives have emerged, without the link with the valley's cheese-making past being cultivated for the moment. These initiatives show the new favorable conditions, but also the persistent obstacles, to the relocation of food circuits in this post-industrial rural territory.; Pendant tout le xxe siècle, le développement de la vallée du Vicdessos (département de l’Ariège, Pyrénées françaises) s’est orienté presque exclusivement vers l’industrie de l’aluminium, conduisant au déclin puis à la disparition totale de la production fromagère locale. Autrefois réputé, le fromage d’Auzat, de brebis puis de vache, a constitué une ressource importante de l’économie locale jusqu’au milieu du xxe siècle. À partir de recherches documentaires, d’entretiens et d’observations ethnographiques, cet article retrace la biographie sociale de ce fromage depuis le milieu du xixe siècle. Il analyse les conditions du déclin de sa production et du brouillage de sa mémoire. Alors que, depuis une vingtaine d’années, cette vallée post-industrielle s’est tournée vers le développement touristique, l’article donne à comprendre les contraintes ayant empêché tout renouveau de la production fromagère jusqu’à récemment. En effet, depuis la fin des années 2010, plusieurs initiatives ont vu le jour, sans que le lien avec le passé fromager de la vallée ne soit pour l’instant cultivé. Ces initiatives donnent à voir les nouvelles conditions favorables, mais aussi les obstacles persistants, à la relocalisation des circuits alimentaires dans ce territoire rural post-industriel.

Simple Summary The camel milk market was limited for a long time by its almost exclusive self-consumption use in nomadic camps. Significant development has been observed for the past two or three decades, including internationally, boosted by its reputation regarding its health effects for regular consumers. Such emergence has led the stakeholders in the sector to offer diversified products corresponding to the tastes of increasingly urbanized consumers, more sensitive to “modern” products. Thus, traditionally drunk in raw or naturally fermented form, camel milk has undergone unprecedented transformations such as pasteurization, directed fermentation, cheese or yoghurt processing, and manufacture of milk powder for the export market. However, the specific characteristics of this milk (composition, physical properties) mean that the technologies applied (copied from technologies used for cow milk) must be adapted. In this review, some technological innovations are presented, enabling stakeholders of the camel milk sector to satisfy the demand of manufacturers and consumers. Abstract Camel milk is a newcomer to domestic markets and especially to the international milk market. This recent emergence has been accompanied by a diversification of processed products, based on the technologies developed for milk from other dairy species. However, technical innovations had to be adapted to a product with specific behavior and composition. The transformation of camel milk into pasteurized milk, fermented milk, cheese, powder, or other products was supported, under the pressure of commercial development, by technological innovations made possible by a basic and applied research set. Some of these innovations regarding one of the less studied milk sources are presented here, as well as their limitations. Technical investigations for an optimal pasteurization, development of controlled fermentation at industrial scale, control of cheese technology suitable for standardized production, and improvements in processes for the supply of a high-quality milk powder are among the challenges of research regarding camel milk.

Origin food schemes (OFS) aim to protect and promote a unique product resulting from a specific place and know-how whose qualities are objectified in the product specifications. This paper explores the standardisation effects of OFS on the diversity of local practices and knowledge by analysing the emergence of the specifications of four origin cheeses recognised as Geographical Indications and Slow Food Presidia (Chefchaouen goat cheese in Morocco, Piacentinu Ennese in Italy, and Bearn mountain cheese and Ossau-Iraty in France). Results confirm that specifications directly preserve some genetic resources, taste, and know-how, whilst they also show that traditional production practices are taken into account differently, depending on negotiations among stakeholders during which opposing motives, strategies, and forms of knowledge may emerge. We argue that paradoxically this process results in adapting and reducing existing diversity, including in OFS that are more oriented towards localising practices and promoting a diversity of tastes.

International audience; This article examines the contentious issue of the coexistence of cheese made from raw milk and cheese made from pasteurised milk in areas of protected designation of origin (PDOs). The French PDO system is held to be the benchmark of the international system of geographical indications (GIs). Drawing on the multi-level perspective framework of socio-technical transitions, we conceptualise PDO cheeses as a “niche” nested within a dominant regime that promotes pasteurisation as the standard technology to control pathogens in milk. Careful examination of statistical data and the specifications for PDO cheeses shows that raw milk is experiencing an upturn in domestic production, which we relate to the reinforcement of the regulatory frameworks governing protection of GIs. We investigate more fully the steady increase in raw milk use by studying two contrasting cases of PDO cheeses (Saint-Nectaire and Ossau-Iraty), in which the confrontation between technologies is internalised. Analysis of local innovation pathways highlights a series of key decisions that strengthen the position of raw milk from the farm to the marketplace, namely grass-feeding, limiting herd productivity, technology-specific identification marks, and redistribution of decision-making power among stakeholders. Regulatory mechanisms that counterbalance the pressures of the regime by strategic management of the “terroir” niche are identified and discussed. We argue that shifting the focus from niche/regime interaction towards the internal dynamics of niches sheds light on the conditions of a coexistence of apparently antagonistic models of production in agri-food networks.; RESUME Cet article examine la question controversée de la coexistence entre fromages fabriqués au lait cru et fromages fabriqués au lait pasteurisé dans les zones d'appellation d'origine protégée (AOP). Le système français des AOP est considéré comme la référence du système international des Indications Géographiques (IG). En mobilisant la perspective multi-niveaux des théories de la transition, nous conceptualisons les fromages AOP comme une « niche sociotechnique » imbriquée dans un régime dominant qui promeut la pasteurisation comme technologie générique pour contrôler les germes pathogènes présents dans le lait. Un examen attentif des données statistiques et du cahier des charges des appellations fromagères françaises montre que le lait cru connaît une reprise de la production intérieure, que nous mettons en relation avec le renforcement des cadres réglementaires régissant la protection des IG. Nous approfondissons l'analyse de cette progression de l'utilisation du lait cru en étudiant deux cas contrastés de fromages AOP (Saint-Nectaire et Ossau-Iraty), dans lesquels la confrontation des technologies est internalisée. L'analyse de leurs trajectoires d'innovation respectives met en évidence une série de décisions stratégiques qui renforcent la position du lait cru de la ferme au marché, comme l'alimentation à l'herbe, la limitation de la productivité du troupeau, les marques d'identification spécifiques aux technologies et la redistribution du pouvoir de décision entre les acteurs au sein des institutions. Les mécanismes de régulation qui contrebalancent les pressions du régime par une gestion stratégique de la "niche de terroir" sont identifiés et discutés. Nous montrons que le déplacement de l'angle d'analyse des interactions entre régime et niche vers la dynamique interne des niches met en lumière les conditions d'une coexistence de modèles de production apparemment antagonistes au sein du monde des fromages et, plus largement, dans les systèmes agri-alimentaires.

Globalization leads to development inequalities between the so-called favorable and marginal rural areas. On a generic market, the latter can hardly compete with favorable rural areas because they are generally less endowed with production factors, located far from the markets and often have poorly developed infrastructures and unfavorable natural conditions for production-oriented agriculture. To avoid price competition some marginal rural areas demonstrate capacity to redefine their development paths through endogenous development. This model relies on local resources to offer specific products and services. The present research focuses on cheese agrifood systems in mountain rural areas. Due to the strong symbolic dimension of such systems on the one hand, and the central role of collective organization on the other hand, the territorial approach developed in French-speaking literature seems valuable for the research. In particular, the concept of Localized Agrifood Systems (LAS) appears to be interesting. LAS corresponds to agrifood systems anchored in specific territories, defined as socially constructed, culturally marketed, and institutionally regulated spaces. They rely on territorial quality differentiation of food products, as an alternative to standardized production. This process mobilizes both material attributes related to intrinsic qualities of the product and symbolic attributes linked to the geographical origin. Territorial governance, which means coordination among heterogeneous local actors, ensures the process of differentiation and the construction of cheese reputation. At the same time, this process requires a specific demand related to a higher willingness to pay from consumers. These are the conditions needed to enable a process of territorial development, as it should result in a higher price and a fairer profit distribution and, therefore, in higher incomes and satisfaction of the local needs. In addition, territorial development considers further social, cultural and environmental dimensions.The differentiation process relies on the creativity of the local actors and offers a potential for self-organization, which depends on the ability of these actors to cooperate and to act collectively. The general aim of this research is to analyze how actors in mountain cheese LAS act collectively for the territorial quality differentiation of the cheese. It encompasses three specific objectives described as follows: i) to analyze the territorial governance structures and the collective strategies implemented to differentiate mountain cheese, ii) to analyze relational processes within a collective organization to understand what is decisive in achieving collective action, iii) to link producers’ representations of identity and the feeling of belonging to territory to their degree of involvement in collective action.The framework of Common Pool Resources (CPRs), territorial proximity and territoriality are employed and connected in this thesis to grasp the relationships between collective action and territory in LAS. First, the CPR framework is used to investigate the normative and multilevel institutional dimensions of collective action, and therefore the governance structures. In fact, this framework allows considering the capacity of self-organization of the local actors through the design of localized institutional arrangements and the establishment of shared norms. At the same time, it also includes the role of governments in potentially supporting localized collective action. Second, the territorial proximity approach is used to integrate the geographical and organized relationships into the analysis. Lastly, the territoriality approach considers the role of identity and feeling of belonging in collective action.This thesis applies both qualitative (e.g. semi-structured interviews, in-depth interviews with key actors, “farm biographies”) and quantitative (e.g. social network analysis, statistics) methods. This research is conducted in two different case studies. The first study area is located in the Campos de Cima da Serra in southern Brazil, where the Serrano cheese is produced. It is a traditional raw milk cheese; however, it is an informal production due to new consumers’ preferences for young instead of matured cheese and difficulties of compliance with hygiene standards. Moreover, production is still poorly organized and the first forms of collective action recently emerged in the 2000s. The second study area is located in the province of Trento, in the Italian Alps. Cheese production is strongly organized by the producers, who are grouped in dairy cooperatives which process milk into different typical cheeses. The cooperatives are associated to a consortium that organizes the cheese production at the province level.Results show that a mixed form of governance, i.e. including local public and private actors, as found in the province of Trento, seems crucial for the success of collective action for cheese differentiation. Whereas a top-down model, i.e. with a predominance of public actors in the coordination, as found in the Campos de Cima da Serra, leads to a low participation of producers in collective action. In order to enhance cheese reputation, the local actors concerned must create exclusion mechanisms by designing their own rules, which include sanction mechanisms, and by defining a pertinent geographical area of production. Most of the time, these rules correspond to specifications in geographical indications. Nonetheless, the success of local collective action also depends on governments and on the implementation of public policies that aim at supporting and valorizing the production. In addition, agritourism plays an important role in differentiation. Regarding the relational structure within collective organizations, the success of collective action relies on a high degree of organizational trust and reciprocity, which are conditioned by geographic and organized proximity. Indeed, geographical proximity, facilitated by village grouping, professional meetings and cultural events, allows increasing face to face interactions and therefore trust. However, the mountain environment can exacerbate isolation, leading to less participation in collective action. The presence of transport and communication infrastructures is therefore necessary to reduce isolation. Moreover, the absence of hierarchy regarding the socioeconomic status among producers, the presence of prestige-based leaders, as well as the resolution of conflicts through the definition of rules seem important for collective action achievement. Finally, producers’ representations of identity reflect their participation in collective action. It therefore seems important to stimulate discussion between the different producers, in order to create common representations conducive to collective action, where the feeling of belonging may be an important element to provide higher commitment.This thesis aimed at deepening the knowledge of territory-based collective action in mountain cheese LAS. It intended to improve scientific knowledge, but also professional practices and public action in favor of the development of marginal rural areas. Future directions would consist in deepening and developing research. The first research avenue involves emphasizing the analysis of the complexity between territory and collective action, which includes the ideal (i.e. identity, representations) and political (i.e. hierarchy and conflicts) dimensions, as well as the link between collective action dynamics and territorial development outcomes. The second research avenue focuses on the implementation of participatory approaches to support the local actors in the design, implementation and evaluation of their projects., Pour échapper à la concurrence par les prix avec les zones rurales plus favorables, certains territoires de montagne démontrent une capacité à redéfinir leurs trajectoires de développement par le biais d'un développement endogène territorial. Ce modèle s'appuie sur les ressources locales pour proposer des produits et services spécifiques. Cette recherche se concentre sur les systèmes fromagers de montagne. Le concept de Systèmes Agroalimentaires Localisés (SYAL) sera utilisé dans cette recherche. Il correspond à des systèmes agroalimentaires ancrés dans un territoire, et s'appuie sur un processus de spécification de la qualité territoriale des produits alimentaires. Ce processus mobilise à la fois des attributs matériels liés aux qualités intrinsèques du produit et des attributs symboliques liés à l'origine géographique. La gouvernance territoriale, c'est-à-dire la coordination entre les acteurs locaux hétérogènes, permet de valoriser et construire la réputation du fromage. Les processus de spécification offrent un potentiel d'auto-organisation, qui dépendent de la capacité de ces acteurs à coopérer et à agir collectivement. L'objectif général de cette recherche est d'analyser comment les acteurs des systèmes fromagers de montagne agissent collectivement pour spécifier leur fromage. Cet objectif englobe trois objectifs spécifiques : i) analyser les structures de gouvernance territoriale et les stratégies collectives mises en œuvre pour valoriser les fromages de montagne, ii) analyser les processus relationnels au sein d'une organisation collective pour comprendre les facteurs décisifs dans la réalisation de l’action collective, iii) lier les représentations identitaires des agriculteurs et le sentiment d'appartenance au territoire à leur degré d'implication dans l'action collective. Les cadres des Common Pool Resources (CPR – ressources naturelles), la proximité territoriale et la territorialité sont utilisés et combinés dans cette thèse pour appréhender les relations entre l'action collective et le territoire dans ces systèmes agroalimentaires. Cette thèse applique à la fois des méthodes qualitatives (entretiens semi-structurés, entretiens approfondis avec des acteurs clés, farm biographies) et quantitatives (analyses des réseaux sociaux, analyses statistiques). Cette recherche est menée sur deux terrains différents. Le premier est situé dans les Campos de Cima da Serra au sud du Brésil. Encore faiblement organisée, la production fromagère est informelle en raison des préférences des consommateurs pour des fromages jeunes plutôt que pour des fromages affinés, et des difficultés de respect des normes d’hygiène. Le deuxième terrain est situé dans la province de Trente, dans les Alpes italiennes, où la production et la valorisation des fromages sont fortement organisées par les agriculteurs, regroupés au sein de coopératives de production. Les résultats montrent qu'une forme mixte de gouvernance, c'est-à-dire incluant des acteurs locaux publics et privés, comme dans la province de Trente, semble cruciale pour le succès de l'action collective pour la spécification des fromages. Alors qu'un modèle descendant, c'est-à-dire avec une prédominance d'acteurs publics dans la coordination, comme on le trouve dans les Campos de Cima da Serra, conduit à une faible participation des agriculteurs à l'action collective. Afin de renforcer la réputation du fromage, les acteurs locaux concernés conçoivent leurs propres règles de production et définissent une zone géographique de production, décrites dans le cahier des charges des indications géographiques. Les résultats montrent que le manque de règles strictes conduit à des processus d’intensification dans les deux études de cas, bien qu’ils soient plus marqués dans le cas italien. Ensuite, le succès de l'action collective dépend aussi des gouvernements et de la mise en œuvre de politiques publiques visant à soutenir et valoriser la production, comme dans la province de Trente. De plus, l'agrotourisme joue un rôle de plus en plus important dans les processus de spécification dans les deux terrains, bien qu’il soit plus développé en Italie. En ce qui concerne la structure relationnelle au sein des organisations collectives, la coopération entre acteurs repose sur un degré élevé de confiance organisationnelle et de réciprocité, conditionnées par la proximité géographique et organisée. En effet, la proximité géographique, facilitée par le regroupement en village, les rencontres professionnelles et les événements culturels comme on le trouve en Italie, permet de multiplier les interactions face-à-face et donc la confiance. Cependant, l'environnement montagnard peut exacerber l'isolement, entraînant une moindre participation à l'action collective. De plus, l'absence de hiérarchie concernant le statut socio-économique des agriculteurs, ainsi que la résolution des conflits par la définition de règles semblent importantes pour le succès de l'action collective, comme on le trouve dans le cas italien. Enfin, les représentations identitaires des agriculteurs reflètent leur participation à l’action collective, et où le sentiment d'appartenance peut jouer un rôle important pour un engagement plus élevé.

Collective action for quality differentiation of food products linked to a territory is a long-term process. It is often hindered by a lack of understanding of multilevel institutional dynamics. This article aims at conducting a socio-historical analysis of the institutional context allowing the development of a specific cheese value-chain in the province of Trento (Italian Alps). Using Ostrom’s institutionalist approach, we conducted a historical analysis of the formal and informal multilevel institutions. Our results showed that a subsistence economy prevailed between 1800 and 1950, which implied little commitment from the producers to build up collective organisations, despite government and church incentives. When the “modernisation” of agriculture started around 1950, it meant that the production could be intended for the market, which enabled the development of producers’ cooperatives. The province became autonomous in 1948 and supported those local dynamics. Since then, we have observed an increasing level of trust among the different local actors and towards the provincial government. Since 2000, the valorisation of cheese specificity has become a central strategy to face competition at different levels. However, at the same time the production has undergone intensification. This leads to a loss of the link between product and territory. The future challenge is therefore to implement innovative institutional arrangements that allow a sustainable differentiation of cheese.

During aging, the sensory capacities and the mastication efficacy decrease, limiting both qualitatively and quantitatively the food intake of the elderly. However, protein and calcium requirements increase with age. In this context, the formulation of foods adapted to the nutritional and sensory needs of the elderly is a challenge for the next years. Objective The main objective of this work was to develop a series of cheeses of variable texture made of whey proteins and enriched with different sources of calcium and test their performances on the oral comfort of elderly people, the bioavailability of amino acids and the calcium bioaccessibility. Methodology The model cheeses developed had the same composition (24% of proteins including 23% of whey proteins, and 20% of lipids) and the different textures were generated by modulating the manufacturing process. Sensory analysis were performed on a panel of people over 65, and in vitro digestion performed using the INFOGEST model whereas in vivo digestion experiments were conducted on a conventional pig model. Main findings The results of the digestion studies highlighted the relevance of integrating whey proteins as a major protein source in dairy products, in order to maximize the bioavailability of essential amino acids. In addition, the bioaccessibility of calcium was mainly related to intra-gastric and intraintestinal pH, rather than to the initial chemical form of its source of enrichment. Finally, the sensory study showed that only the textures perceived as “dry” were linked to a significant decrease in the oral comfort of the elderly. Conclusion This work highlights the opportunity to develop sensory and nutritionally adapted dairy products for the elderly. Based on this work, it would be interesting to carry out clinical studies to know the physiological impact of these products on the prevention of osteoporosis and sarcopenia.

[Otros] La présence de résidus d'antibiotiques dans les produits laitiers peut constituer un problème pour la santé publique et pour l'industrie laitière. Dans ce travail, nous avons évalué l'effet de la présence de néomycine dans le lait de chèvre sur la fabrication et les caractéristiques du fromage Tronchón. Les fromages ont été fabriqués, en double exemplaire, à partir du lait de chèvre cru sans antibiotiques et avec l'addition de néomycine à la limite maximale de résidu (1500 ug/kg). Nous avons étudié les changements dans les caractéristiques du fromage et la présence de résidus à différentes périodes de maturation (1, 30 et 60 jours). La durée du procédé de fabrication augmentait (48 ± 18 min) sous l'effet de la présence de néomycine dans le lait de chèvre. Concernant les caractéristiques du fromage, nous avons observé une diminution dans les valeurs de l'activité de l¿eau ainsi qu¿une réduction dans les concentrations d'acides gras libres et d'acides aminés libres dans les fromages avec l'antibiotique, en suggérant une activité biochimique mineure pendant la maturation. Nous avons aussi observé une plus grande légèreté, moins rougeur et une plus faible élasticité dans ce type de fromage. En plus, pendant la maturation, les concentrations de néomycine dans le fromage augmentaient 4,9 fois par rapport à la concentration initiale dans le lait, ce qui pourrait impliquer un risque pour la santé publique., [EN] Antibiotic residues in milk and dairy products are a potential problem for public health, and for the dairy industry. This study investigated the effect of the presence of neomycin in goat's milk on the production and characteristics of semi-hard Tronchón cheese. Cheeses were made, in duplicate, from raw goat's milk without antibiotics and with addition of neomycin at the Maximum Residue Limit (1500 ug/kg). Possible chan ges in the characteristics and the presence of antibiotic residues in the cheeses were evaluated at different time points along ripening (1, 30 and 60 days). Processing time was increased (48 ± 18 min) by the presence of neomycin in milk. Regarding cheeses, lower values of water activity as well as reduced free fatty acids and free amino-acid concentrations were detected in cheeses from milk with the antibiotic, suggesting a minor biochemical activity throughout ripening. Thus, a greater lightness and lower redness value were observed in this type of cheese, also presenting lower springiness. Moreover, high concentrations of neomycin were retained in the cheese and concentrated during ripening, leading to a concentration factor of 4.9, with respect to the initial concentration in the milk, potentially implying a risk to public health., This work is part of the AGL-2013-45147-R funded by the Ministry of Science and Innovation (Madrid. Spain). The authors thank the UPV (Program of Research and Development) for funding the PhD scholarship FPI-2014 attained by P. Quintanilla.

New sequencing technologies allowed the development of methods such as metabarcoding. They use 16S rRNA, the ubiquitous gene of the bacteria domain, as a biomarker to study bacterial communities from samples of complex environments. The bioinformatic pipelines used to handle this type of data are well known but the taxonomic assignment is still a critical point. Misannotations are caused by short size sequences and high identity between bacterial species. Indeed, current technologies only allow to sequence two hyper-variable regions among the nine which compose the 16S rRNA. The available generalist databases (Greengenes, SILVA) do not reach enough accuracy to assign to the species rank. It is needed to create a curated reference database dedicated to the studied environment. Here we introduce the DAIRYdb, a manually curated database composed of full length 16S rRNA sequences from samples of dairy products and close environments (cheese, milk, teat surface, starter, whey). The DAIRYdb was constructed using the 16S rRNA sequences deposited in EMBL and NCBI. After bioinformatic treatments, automatic and manual curative steps, DAIRYdb is finally composed of 10290 complete 16S sequences. It shows a higher assignment accuracy compared to other databases, at all taxonomic ranks and with any assignment tool tested. Depending on the variable region used, up to 90% of the tested sequences are reassigned to the species level with DAIRYdb. DAIRYdb significantly improves taxonomic assignment accuracy for dairy environmental microbiome studies. It is available on public a repository (https://forgemia.inra.fr/umrf/dairydb).

[Otros] La présence de résidus d'antibiotiques dans les produits laitiers peut constituer un problème pour la santé publique et pour l'industrie laitière. Dans ce travail, nous avons évalué l'effet de la présence de néomycine dans le lait de chèvre sur la fabrication et les caractéristiques du fromage Tronchón. Les fromages ont été fabriqués, en double exemplaire, à partir du lait de chèvre cru sans antibiotiques et avec l'addition de néomycine à la limite maximale de résidu (1500 ug/kg). Nous avons étudié les changements dans les caractéristiques du fromage et la présence de résidus à différentes périodes de maturation (1, 30 et 60 jours). La durée du procédé de fabrication augmentait (48 ± 18 min) sous l'effet de la présence de néomycine dans le lait de chèvre. Concernant les caractéristiques du fromage, nous avons observé une diminution dans les valeurs de l'activité de l¿eau ainsi qu¿une réduction dans les concentrations d'acides gras libres et d'acides aminés libres dans les fromages avec l'antibiotique, en suggérant une activité biochimique mineure pendant la maturation. Nous avons aussi observé une plus grande légèreté, moins rougeur et une plus faible élasticité dans ce type de fromage. En plus, pendant la maturation, les concentrations de néomycine dans le fromage augmentaient 4,9 fois par rapport à la concentration initiale dans le lait, ce qui pourrait impliquer un risque pour la santé publique. [EN] Antibiotic residues in milk and dairy products are a potential problem for public health, and for the dairy industry. This study investigated the effect of the presence of neomycin in goat's milk on the production and characteristics of semi-hard Tronchón cheese. Cheeses were made, in duplicate, from raw goat's milk without antibiotics and with addition of neomycin at the Maximum Residue Limit (1500 ug/kg). Possible chan ges in the characteristics and the presence of antibiotic residues in the cheeses were evaluated at different time points along ripening (1, 30 and 60 days). Processing time was increased (48 ± 18 min) by the presence of neomycin in milk. Regarding cheeses, lower values of water activity as well as reduced free fatty acids and free amino-acid concentrations were detected in cheeses from milk with the antibiotic, suggesting a minor biochemical activity throughout ripening. Thus, a greater lightness and lower redness value were observed in this type of cheese, also presenting lower springiness. Moreover, high concentrations of neomycin were retained in the cheese and concentrated during ripening, leading to a concentration factor of 4.9, with respect to the initial concentration in the milk, potentially implying a risk to public health. This work is part of the AGL-2013-45147-R funded by the Ministry of Science and Innovation (Madrid. Spain). The authors thank the UPV (Program of Research and Development) for funding the PhD scholarship FPI-2014 attained by P. Quintanilla.

Background Reads assignment to taxonomic units is a key step in microbiome analysis pipelines. To date, accurate taxonomy annotation of 16S reads, particularly at species rank, is still challenging due to the short size of read sequences and differently curated classification databases. The close phylogenetic relationship between species encountered in dairy products, however, makes it crucial to annotate species accurately to achieve sufficient phylogenetic resolution for further downstream ecological studies or for food diagnostics. Curated databases dedicated to the environment of interest are expected to improve the accuracy and resolution of taxonomy annotation. Results We provide a manually curated database composed of 10’290 full-length 16S rRNA gene sequences from prokaryotes tailored for dairy products analysis (https://github.com/marcomeola/DAIRYdb). The performance of the DAIRYdb was compared with the universal databases Silva, LTP, RDP and Greengenes. The DAIRYdb significantly outperformed all other databases independently of the classification algorithm by enabling higher accurate taxonomy annotation down to the species rank. The DAIRYdb accurately annotates over 90% of the sequences of either single or paired hypervariable regions automatically. The manually curated DAIRYdb strongly improves taxonomic annotation accuracy for microbiome studies in dairy environments. The DAIRYdb is a practical solution that enables automatization of this key step, thus facilitating the routine application of NGS microbiome analyses for microbial ecology studies and diagnostics in dairy products. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-019-5914-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

In Press, Corrected Proof; Although the effects of cow diet on cheese sensory properties have been well documented, the putative interactions between the biochemical and microbial milk components and their respective roles in the development of the sensory properties of cheeses have yet to be explored in depth. The aim of this study was to evaluate the specific contribution of milk fat composition to the formation of cheese sensory properties. Two creams with different fat compositions were obtained from cows fed either pasture or maize silage. Cheeses were manufactured from the same skim milk (identical chemical and microbial composition) with either the pasture- or maize silage-origin pasteurized cream added. The gross composition and microbial composition of milks did not vary with cream origin. In milks and cheeses, the fatty acid (FA) profiles were modified by the origin of the cream. The concentrations of C18:0 and unsaturated FA such as cis-9 C18:1, trans-11 C18:1, C18:3n-3, total conjugated linoleic acids, and mono- and polyunsaturated FA were higher in milks and cheeses with the pasture-origin cream than in those with the maize-origin cream. In contrast, the maize milks and cheeses had higher concentrations of short- and medium-chain saturated FA, C16:0, and C18:2n-6. The level of lipolysis was 11% in the cheese rind and only 0.30% in the cheese core. The rind of pasture cheeses had a higher concentration of free C18:0 and C18:3n-3 and a lower concentration of free C14:0 and free C16:0 than the rind of maize cheeses. The levels of major microbial groups were similar in pasture and maize cheeses at different stages of ripening. The pasture cheeses had a more elastic and creamier texture, a yellower color, and a thinner rind than the maize cheeses, but the odor and aroma of cheeses were not affected by the origin of the cream, despite a few modifications in the balance of volatile compounds from FA catabolism. Based on these results, we conclude that milk fat composition modulated by cow diet had a direct role in the texture of the cheese but no effect on flavor. The high degree of lipolysis in cheese rind, along with the higher concentration of long-chain unsaturated free FA in pasture cheeses may be responsible for antimicrobial activity, which could explain differences in the appearance of cheese rind.

International audience; Collective action within territorial organizations is complex. Initiatives often collapse from a lack of understanding of relational dynamics and logics of action. This article proposes a relational approach to study the collective action process within a producer association of a Localized Agrifood System (LAS). We conducted the research within the APROCAMPOS association, located in the Serrano cheese LAS, which involves producer families, extension agents, inspection veterinarians and secretaries of agriculture. We first conducted a social network analysis of advice seeking within the association, through sociometric interviews with the producer members. Second, an analysis of territorial proximity, conducted through semi-structured interviews with the association participants, was combined with the social network analysis. Results showed that extension agents are in a very central position in the advice network. They follow a classical top down model of knowledge diffusion. The president of the association plays a key brokerage role, essential for the network cohesion and information flow. Second, the analyses revealed a lack of trust and reciprocity among producers, leading to a low level of interaction and collective action, which can, however, be improved by the combination of geographical and organized proximities. In sum, the top-down model leads to low levels of initiative and participation among the producers in collective action. Local knowledge needs to be integrated in a more participatory governance frame to build common projects of cheese valorization. Nonetheless, institutional arrangements appear instrumental to define political orientation that favors cooperation and meets the quality of the Serrano cheese and promotes the development of the territory as a whole.

Probiotics already in your fridge?. 14.congrès national de la Société Française de Microbiologie (SFM)

INTRODUCTION Propionibacterium freudenreichii is an emergent probiotic bacterium, belonging to dairy propionibacteria, within the group of Actinomycetales, and possessing the GRAS (Generally Recognized As Safe, USA, FDA) and QPS (Qualified Presumption of Safety, EFSA, European Union) status. It is a traditional Swiss-type cheeses starter and an emergent probiotic, exerting several beneficial effects, including anti-inflammatory modulation of gut inflammation. This feature relies on several metabolites and on surface proteins including in particular the surface protein SlpB. METHOD In the present study, we assessed first the impact of proteolytic degradation of SlpB on its immunomodulatory effect on colon epithelial HT-29 cells. Intact P. freudenreichii cells, purified surface layer proteins (SLPs), as well as trypsin-proteolyzed SLPs, were used to stimulate HT-29 cells, in the presence or absence of pro-inflamatory LPS. Cytokines were then quantified to evaluate the inflammatory response. We then investigated the potential of cheese matrix as a delivery vehicle of anti-inflammatory P. freudenreichii MAMP to the colon, by comparing dairy liquids matrices to a solid Swiss-type cheese matrix, using two in vitro digestion models. Integrity of SlpB was monitored using western blotting. RESULTS In this study, we firstly investigated the relevance to avoid SlpB digestive proteolysis, by comparing the effect of i) P. freudenreichii CIRM-BIA 129, ii) its native SLPs, or iii) peptides resulting from SLPs stimulations, with respect to modulation of HT-29 cells response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge. The anti-inflammatory effect exerted by P. freudenreichii CIRM-BIA 129 and by native surface proteins (SLPs) on HT-29 cells was abolished by digestive proteolysis. This result confirmed the importance to protect immunomodulatory surface proteins from digestive proteolysis in order to allow gut immune system modulation. Thus, we examined the effect of dairy matrices on P. freudenreichii viability and on SlpB integrity during digestion. In comparison with liquid matrices, the cheese matrix provided an enhanced tolerance to digestive stresses and protection of SlpB towards proteolysis, during two in vitro digestion models: static and dynamic. CONCLUSION These in vitro results provide new insights into the matrix effect on P. freudenreichii probiotic functionalities. The cheese matrix offers significant protection against the digestion stresses by enhancing survival, and by protecting surface layer proteins from proteolysis. However, in vivo investigations are necessary to study the matrix effect during digestion, to follow SLPs expression and to evaluate the matrix effect on immunomodulation by P. freudenreichii within the gut. Such data accordingly will allow the development of new functional foods for the delivery of P. freudenreichii to the gastrointestinal tract of humans in the aim to help prevention or treatment of life-style related diseases with an inflammatory component.

Propionibacterium freudenreichii is a beneficial bacterium traditionally used as a cheese-ripening starter and more recently for its probiotic abilities based on the release of beneficial metabolites. In addition to these metabolites (short-chain fatty acids, vitamins, and bifidogenic factor), P. freudenreichii revealed an immunomodulatory effect confirmed in vivo by the ability to protect mice from induced acute colitis. This effect is, however, highly strain-dependent. Local action of metabolites and of immunomodulatory molecules is favoured by the ability of probiotics to adhere to the host cells. This property depends on key surface compounds, still poorly characterized in propionibacteria. We thus investigated the involvement of a specific propionibacterial surface protein in adhesion of the probiotic Propionibacterium freudenreichii to host cells. We compared several strains of Propionibacterium freudenreichii, with respect to adhesion to cultured human intestinal epithelial cells, using a well-established model. We inactivated genes using a previously developed method, based on the integration of a non-replicative plasmid, harbouring a portion of the target gene. We analysed adhesion of the wild type and the mutant strains using fluorescent-assisted flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. We also sought inhibition of adhesion using antibodies directed against surface layer proteins. In the present study, we showed different adhesion rates to cultured human intestinal cells, among strains of P. freudenreichii. The most adhesive one was P. freudenreichii CIRM-BIA 129, which is known to expose surface-layer proteins. We evidenced here the involvement of these proteins in adhesion to cultured human colon cells. We then aimed at deciphering the mechanisms involved in adhesion. Adhesion was inhibited by antibodies raised against SlpB, one of the surface-layer proteins in P. freudenreichii CIRM-BIA 129. Inactivation of the corresponding gene suppressed adhesion, further evidencing the key role of slpB product in cell adhesion. This work confirms the various functions fulfilled by surface-layer proteins, including probiotic/host interactions. It opens new perspectives for the understanding of probiotic determinants in propionibacteria, and for the selection of the most efficient strains within the P. freudenreichii species.

National audience; Introduction Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) constitute a growing public health concern in western countries. More generally, inflammation is a key parameter involved in many non-communicable chronic diseases. Bacteria with anti-inflammatory properties are lacking in the dysbiosis accompanying IBD. Selected strains of probiotic bacteria with anti-inflammatory properties accordingly alleviate symptoms and enhance treatment of ulcerative colitis in clinical trials. Such properties are also found in (only) selected strains of dairy starters, including the Propionibacterium freudenreichii and Lactobacillus delbrueckii species, which are widely ingested. We thus investigated the possibility to develop a fermented dairy product, combining both starter and probiotic abilities of both lactic acid and propionic acid bacteria, designed to extend remissions in IBD patients. Methods We developed a single-strain L. delbrueckii-fermented milk and a two-strain P. freudenreichii and L. delbrueckii-fermented experimental pressed cheese using strains previously selected for their anti-inflammatory properties. This cheese was made in fully mastered conditions and contained only the two selected strains. It was consumed daily by mice during five days before induction of acute colitis by trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS). Outcomes of colitis induction were then monitored in mice consuming this cheese or a placebo diary matrix. Results For the first time, consumption of a designer P. freudenreichii and Lactobacillus delbrueckii pressed cheese was shown to protect mice against experimental colitis, alleviating severity of symptoms, modulating local and systemic inflammation, as well as colonic oxidative stress and epithelial cell damages. As a control, the corresponding sterile dairy matrix failed to afford such protection. Discussion We eat more bacteria through daily consumption of fermented dairy products then through our consumption of functional food supplements. This offers a tremendous level to modulate the digestive tract through the intake of desired bacteria. This work reveals the probiotic potential of a mixture of lactic and propionic selected starters, in the context of fermented dairy products. A “two-in-one” ability is revealed for bacteria able both to produce a fermented dairy product and to modulate inflammation. Such an innovation opens new avenues for the reverse engineering development of anti-inflammatory fermented foods designed for target populations with IBD, and has provided evidences leading to an ongoing pilot clinical study in ulcerative colitis patients.

Do bacterial strains in cheese have an impact on the protein hydrolysis during human digestion, and if so, does a higher microbial diversity lead to the generation of a higher number of different peptides after digestion? Cheese bacteria are responsible for the hydrolysis of proteins already during cheese ripening. These bacterial cultures are introduced at different steps of the cheese manufacturing process. First, the raw milk flora that is dependent on the milk heat treatment before the cheese manufacturing process, is a major source of a variety of bacteria. Second, starter cultures, needed for a successful acidification of the cheese curd are added to prevent side fermentations. Third, addition of cultures is made for improving flavor or accelerating the ripening process, depending on the type of cheese. Because of bacterial proteolytic activity, proteins in cheese are partially hydrolyzed, depending on the ripening time and are further digested by gastric and pancreatic proteases, after consumption, to the level of small peptides and free amino acids. In order to elucidate possible differences in proteolysis depending on the presence of different bacteria, Swiss Raclette cheeses were produced either from raw or pasteurized milk with or without addition of a proteolytic bacterial strains (Lactobacillus helveticus) and ripened during 120 days. The microbial diversity and the relative abundance of specific strains in the different cheeses was assessed after 24 hours, 80 and 120 days of cheese ripening by sequencing the hypervariable regions V1-V2 of the 16S rRNA genes. Moreover, protein hydrolysis in the different cheeses was analyzed with gel electrophoresis, mass spectrometry, and HPLC after in vitro digestion, applying a static (Infogest) and a dynamic (DIDGI®) oro-gastrointestinal in vitro digestion protocol. In order to gain information on the influence of bacterial strains on protein hydrolysis, the 16s meta-genomic and 16s meta-transcriptomic results were correlated with protein and peptide patterns.

Foodsim' 2018, Ghent, BEL, 08-/04/2018 - 12/04/2018; International audience; During refrigerated transport and storage, cheese generates heat via respiration of the living microorganisms. Therefore, free/mixed convection phenomena are expected to occur within the pallet and to internet with forced convection around it. The resulting airflow should promote appropriate internal ventilation within the pallet to ensure the temperature homogeneity. This work aimed to study the influence of various parameters on the air flow and heat transfer within a pallet of cheese during forced air cooling. A 3-D computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model was developed to predict the temperature of the products in different configurations. Both forced and natural convection due to the heat generation of the produce were considered in the model. The numerical model can be potentially used as a design tool to improve the design of vented packages in order to reduce temperature differences of products within the pallet during the whole cold chain. (cooling, transport, storage)

5th IIR Conference on Sustainability and the Cold Chain, Beijing, CHN, 06-/04/2018 - 08/04/2018; International audience; During refrigerated transport and storage, cheese generates heat via respiration of the living microorganisms inside and at the surface of the product . In order to ensure the level and uniformity of temperature within a pallet, it is important to take into account this amount of heat. This work aimed to study the influences of different parameters on the heat transfer for which forced convection around the pallet interacts with free/mixed convection inside it. An experimental device was used in which the cheese was replaced by plaster blocs ; each bloc being equipped with a heating resistance to simulate the produce heat generation. The pallet was placed in a room under controlled operating conditions. Two upwind air velocities were selected : 0.31 m/s and 0.73 m/s ; the heat generating varied between 0.05W and 0.30W per product of 0.25k g. Adimensionless corr elation predicting the maximal temperature in function of the operating conditions was established.

Combined steps, such as draining and acidification, as well as ripening downtime still represent bottlenecks during cheese making. Indeed, they negatively affect the control of process efficiency, the cheese weight range, the quality of by-products and the balance between supply and demand. In this work, an innovative process was proposed and validated on a semi-industrial scale in order to manufacture cheese products without ripening, albeit on a large range of texture and taste mimicking fresh to pressed type cheeses. On the one hand, draining and acidification steps were uncoupled by using membrane filtration and centrifugation to fractionate milk constituents, and then by reconstructing a controlled texture matrix with regard to protein / fat ratio, denaturation rate of whey proteins, mineralization and amount of available lactose.Different aromatic matrices were produced in parallel by growing Yarrovia lipolytica, Propionibacterium freudenreichii, a mixture of Lactococcus lactis / cremoris / diacetylactis, or Hafnia alvéi in controlled environmental conditions. In less than four days, aromatic sulfur, ketone, acidic and aldehyde molecules were produced at concentration similar to that of a ripened curd. Finally, the texture and aromatic matrices were assembled in a ratio 90:10, and then textured through pH and temperature adjustment, NaCl, rennet or texturing agent addition. Results showed it was possible to obtain products with firmness varying from that of a spread cheese to that of a semi hard type cheese, and with aroma mimicking Saint Paulin as well as Cheddar depending on the quantities and proportions of added aromatic molecules.This eco-efficient and patented process makes it possible to control each step independently, to reduce significantly the inputs, to obtain standardized by-products and consequently to limit production costs. It is possible with the same equipment to produce from day to day and on demand any types of flavored and textured cheeses.

International audience; Propionibacterium freudenreichii is a well-known ripening starter used in the manufacture of Swiss-type cheeses. It exerts several strain-dependent probiotic features, such as the modulation of apoptosis, of immunity and of microbiota, at the gut level. Promoting fermented dairy products as functional foods is a promising manner to reduce risks of specific life-style related diseases, including colitis. In this aim, the selection of starters should be made on both technological and probiotic criteria. Previously, a single-strain cheese fermented exclusively by P. freudenreichii CIRM-BIA 129 revealed a protective effect against induced colitis in mice. Nonetheless, the effect of delivery matrix on immunomodulatory properties of P. freudenreichii is poorly understood. In addition, data on the effect of fermented cheese on healthy subject or animals are scarce. We thus compared three groups of piglets: 1) fed with a sterilized cheese matrix, 2) fed with a P. freudenreichii CIRM-BIA 129-fermented milk ultrafiltrate and 3) fed with a P. freudenreichii CIRM-BIA 129-single-strain cheese. The immune cells from mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN) were extracted and different analysis were carried out: 1) the basal secretion of cytokines TNFα and IFNγ were assessed by ELISA; 2) the expression of transcription factors Tbet and GATA3, marker of lymphocytes Th1 and Th2 respectively were assessed by RT-PCR, 3); then cells were stimulated ex vivo with several stimuli (LPS and Concanavalin A (ConA) and surface proteins of P. freudenreichii (Slps)), TNFα and IFNγ secretion was measured. The ingestion of P. freudenreichii, whatever the delivery vehicle, doesn’t influence the basal secretion of TNFα and IFNγ. However, the ingestion of P. freudenreichii in the form of cheese enhances Th2 response (tolerance response) by increasing GATA3 expression in MLN cells. In addition, MLN cells from different piglet groups don’t respond similarly to ex vivo stimuli. The ingestion of P. freudenreichii in the form of cheese inhibites the TNFα secretion initiated by LPS simulation and enhanced IFNγ response during co-stimulation LPS and Slps or ConA and Slps. Altogether, in healthy piglets, the cheese matrix modulated the immunomodulatory properties of P. freudenreichii in intestinal immunity which lead to a better reaction to exogenous stimulus.

The αs1-casein hydrolysis has been shown to greatly influence the texture and techno-functionalities of hard cooked cheeses. This hydrolysis can be performed by the proteinases of the thermophilic lactobacilli since rennet, also implied, is denatured during the cooking step. However, it is unclear whether these changes are only due to the proteolytic activity of lactobacilli, the pH decrease in cheese or both. Small scale Swiss-cheeses were made from microfiltered milk using various combinations of starters including or not lactobacilli: i) Streptoccocus thermophilus alone (STH cheeses), ii), S. thermophilus in enriched lactose cheesemilk (STH-LACT cheeses) to reach pH level similar to cheese with lactobacilli and iii) S. thermophilus and lactobacilli either L helveticus (STH/LH cheeses), or L. delbrueckii subsp lactis (STH/LL cheeses). As S. thermophilus does not metabolize the galactose moiety of lactose, the pH at day 1 of these STH-LACT cheeses was similar to those made with lactobacilli (pH 5.15-5.25) while pH values of the STH cheeses were higher (pH 5.40). Higher firmness and chewiness of the melted ripened STH cheeses were correlated with a higher pH at day 1 and with a lower proteolysis (twofold amount of remaining intact αs1-casein) compared to the STH-LACT cheeses as well as the cheeses with lactobacilli. Conversely, the stretchability showed different behaviors depending both on the quantitative and qualitative proteolysis and on the pH value. The lower pH and content in small peptides led to higher stretchability of the STH-LACT and STH/LH cheeses in contrast to the cheeses STH (high pH and few small peptides) and STH/LL (low pH and high amount of small peptides). In conclusion, the decrease in pH due to the use of lactobacilli plays a key role in the texture of raw and melted Swiss-cheese. Beside the pH, the proteolytic activity of lactobacilli is also a determinant factor for stretchability.

Spoilage is a major issue for the food industry, leading to important food waste and economic losses. Dairy products, despite their microbial stability, are susceptible to acid-tolerant fungal contaminants. In this context, antifungal cultures are of growing interest as an alternative to chemical preservatives or as a complement tool to hurdle technologies. To develop antifungal cultures for the biopreservation of dairy products, experiments were conducted in vitro and in situ. Firstly, an antifungal activity screening was performed in cheese-mimicking and yogurt models. Thirty two lactic and propionic acid bacterial strains were studied alone and then in combination for 5 strains of interest. This allowed selecting two binary combinations as potential antifungal cultures. The selected combinations were then tested as adjunct cultures in semi-hard cheeses produced at a pilot scale, to evaluate their antifungal activity and their impact on cheese organoleptic properties, and compared with a commercial antifungal culture. Challenge and durability tests confirmed the antifungal activity of the 2 selected combinations. All the cheeses showed acceptable sensory properties, even if the ones with antifungal cultures, including the one with a commercial culture, were characterized by a more marked flavour compared to the control ones (p

Fil: Galmarini, Mara Virginia. Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l’Alimentation. Université de Bourgogne; Francia Fil: Galmarini, Mara Virginia. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina Fil: Galmarini, Mara Virginia. Pontificia Universidad Católica Argentina. Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias Agrarias; Argentina Fil: Dufau, Lucie. Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l’Alimentation. Université de Bourgogne; Francia Fil: Dufau, Lucie. AgroParisTech; Francia Fil: Loiseau, Anne Laure. Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l’Alimentation. Université de Bourgogne; Francia Fil: Visalli, Michel. Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l’Alimentation. Université de Bourgogne; Francia Fil: Schlich, Pascal. Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l’Alimentation. Université de Bourgogne; Francia Abstract: The aim of this study was to identify which attributes impacted the dynamic liking of cheese and wine individually, as well as when consumed together. Three wines (one white, Pouilly Loché; and two red, Maranges and Beaujolais) and three cheeses (Comté, Époisses, Chaource) were individually evaluated by a group of 60 consumers using mono-intake Temporal Dominance of Sensations (TDS) with simultaneous hedonic ratings. The same data acquisition screen was used for all products showing a unique list of 14 descriptors (covering cheese and wine perception) and a hedonic scale for dynamical rating of liking. The dynamic hedonic data were associated with the TDS profiles obtaining Temporal Drivers of Liking (TDL). Furthermore, the nine associations that resulted from combining each wine with each cheese were evaluated by multi-bite and multi-sip TDS. Individually, Chaource had practically no TDL; for Comté, mushroom flavor was a positive TDL, and in Époisses, salty was a negative TDL. As for wines, negative TDL were only found in the red wines: bitter, sour and astringent. Positive TDL for wines were: fruity, spicy and woody. Changes in the dynamic perception had a bigger impact on liking of wine compared to cheese. For the associations, the negative TDL were only three and mostly wine related: sour (for seven out of nine combinations), bitter (six out of nine) and astringent (five out of nine). Positive TDL were more varied (a total of 10 descriptors) and were related either to wine or cheese. As opposed to what was found in cheese alone, salty was a positive TDL in two of the combinations. It was observed that the dynamic sensory perception had a more important impact on liking in wine-cheese combinations than when consumed separately. TDS and TDL have a big potential in the study of food pairing, which should be further exploited.

Development of a anti inflammatory cheese. Cheese symposium - The 2nd Symposium in Future Dairy Manufacturing

National audience

n-3 highly unsaturated fatty acids (n-3 HUFA) directly and indirectly regulate lipid metabolism, energy balance and the inflammatory response. We investigated changes to the n-3 HUFA score of healthy adults, induced by different types and amounts of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA)-enriched (ENCH) cheeses consumed for different periods of time, compared to dietary fish oil (FO) pills (500 mg, each containing 100 mg of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids&mdash, EPA+DHA) or &alpha, linolenic acid (ALA)-rich linseed oil (4 g, containing 2 g of ALA). A significant increase in the n-3 HUFA score was observed, in a dose-dependent manner, after administration of the FO supplement. In terms of the impact on the n-3 HUFA score, the intake of ENCH cheese (90 g/day) for two or four weeks was equivalent to the administration of one or two FO pills, respectively. Conversely, the linseed oil intake did not significantly impact the n-3 HUFA score. Feeding ENCH cheeses from different sources (bovine, ovine and caprine) for two months improved the n-3 HUFA score by increasing plasma DHA, and the effect was proportional to the CLA content in the cheese. We suggest that the improved n-3 HUFA score resulting from ENCH cheese intake may be attributed to increased peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPAR-&alpha, ) activity. This study demonstrates that natural ENCH cheese is an alternative nutritional source of n-3 HUFA in humans.

International audience; In addition to their high sodium content, cheeses are thought to induce an acid load to the body, which is associated with deleterious effects on consumers' health. Our objective was to explore the use of alkalinizing salts in partial substitution of NaCl to reduce both the sodium content and the acid-forming potential of cheese, without altering its sensory properties. Blue-veined cheeses were produced under industrial conditions, using brine salting followed by dry salting with a 4:1 (wt/ wt) mixture of calcium lactate: NaCl or calcium citrate: NaCl. Sodium chloride was used in 2 granulometries: coarse (control treatment) and fine, to obtain homogeneous mixtures with the organic salts. Cheeses were then ripened for 56 d. No major appearance defects were observed during ripening. Calcium lactate substitution decreased the Na content of the cheese core by 33%, and calcium citrate substitution increased the citrate content of the cheese core by 410%, respectively, compared with fine NaCl. This study highlighted the substantial role of salt granulometry in sodium content, with the use of the coarse salt reducing the sodium content by 21% compared with fine salt. Sensory profiles showed nonsignificant differences in bitter and salty perceptions of salt-substituted cheeses with calcium lactate and calcium citrate compared with control cheeses. The use of calcium lactate should be considered to reduce the sodium content and improve the nutritional quality of cheeses while maintaining the sensory quality of the products. Alkalinizing organic salts could replace the acidifying salts KCl or CaCl 2 , which are currently used in salt replacement and are not recommended for consumers with renal disease. The method described here should be considered by cheese-making producers to improve the nutritional quality of cheese. Additional nutritional optimization strategies are suggested.

Great inter-individual differences exist in fat perception. Forty subjects were grouped according their global fat perception in cottage cheeses. The more sensitive subjects were also more sensitive to fatty odorants, they had a higher respiratory flow and thus a higher rate of release of aroma compounds in the nasal cavity, which could explain the role of the olfactory modality in fat perception. Fat sensitive subjects had a lower saliva flow, less viscous saliva, and less amount of product remaining in the mouth after swallowing, which could explain, why they were more sensitive to taste and textural modalities of fat perception.

Combined steps, such as draining and acidification, as well as ripening downtime still represent bottlenecks during cheese making. Indeed, they negatively affect the control of process efficiency, the cheese weight range, the quality of by-products and the balance between supply and demand. In this work, an innovative process was proposed and validated on a semi-industrial scale in order to manufacture cheese products without ripening, albeit on a large range of texture and taste mimicking fresh to pressed type cheeses. On the one hand, draining and acidification steps were uncoupled by using membrane filtration and centrifugation to fractionate milk constituents, and then by reconstructing a controlled texture matrix with regard to protein / fat ratio, denaturation rate of whey proteins, mineralization and amount of available lactose. Different aromatic matrices were produced in parallel by growing Yarrovia lipolytica, Propionibacterium freudenreichii, a mixture of Lactococcus lactis / cremoris / diacetylactis, or Hafnia alvéi in controlled environmental conditions. In less than four days, aromatic sulfur, ketone, acidic and aldehyde molecules were produced at concentration similar to that of a ripened curd. Finally, the texture and aromatic matrices were assembled in a ratio 90:10, and then textured through pH and temperature adjustment, NaCl, rennet or texturing agent addition. Results showed it was possible to obtain products with firmness varying from that of a spread cheese to that of a semi hard type cheese, and with aroma mimicking Saint Paulin as well as Cheddar depending on the quantities and proportions of added aromatic molecules. This eco-efficient and patented process makes it possible to control each step independently, to reduce significantly the inputs, to obtain standardized by-products and consequently to limit production costs. It is possible with the same equipment to produce from day to day and on demand any types of flavored and textured cheeses.