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Food production is affected by climate change, and, in turn, food production is responsible for 20–30% of greenhouse gases. The food system must increase output as the population increases and must meet nutrition and health needs while simultaneously assisting in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. Good nutrition is important for combatting infection, reducing child mortality, and controlling obesity and chronic disease throughout the life course. Dietary guidelines provide advice for a healthy diet, and the main principles are now well established and compatible with sustainable development. Climate change will have a significant effect on food supply; however, with political commitment and substantial investment, projected improvements will be sufficient to provide food for the healthy diets needed to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. Some changes will need to be made to food production, nutrient content will need monitoring, and more equitable distribution is required to meet the dietary guidelines. Increased breastfeeding rates will improve infant and adult health while helping to reduce greenhouse gases. This research is funded in part by a grant from the Vietnam National Foundation for Science and Technology Development (NAFOSTED)

By Order of the Government of the Russian Federation № 1215-r dated July 3, 2014, the Concept for the Development of Domestic Food Aid in the Russian Federation was approved [1]. For the purposes of this Concept, domestic food aid is understood to mean a system of state aid to the population of the Russian Federation in the form of direct food supplies to interested parties or the provision of funds for their purchase of food in order to improve nutrition and achieve its balance, taking into account rational norms of food consumption. In accordance with the Federal Law of July 17, 1999 № 178-FZ "On State Social Assistance" [2], targeted state social assistance, including in the form of cash payments and in the form of food, is provided to low-income families, low- income citizens living alone, other categories of citizens in accordance with the normative legal acts of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and state regional programs at the expense of the budgets of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. The amount of such assistance, conditions and procedure for its provision are also determined by the state authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. Food is delivered directly to beneficiaries or distributed to citizens through a network of social stores. Also, citizens in need, especially pensioners, disabled people, are provided with free or preferential meals in social canteens at social service institutions and at special homes for lonely elderly people. Distribution received the provision of free food packages by certain categories of citizens, including senior citizens, large families, parents with disabled children, as well as guardians, trustees, foster parents and foster carers. In some regions, various forms of monetary compensation have been introduced to citizens who find themselves in difficult life situations for the purchase of food and hot meals, including using electronic means. The implementation of the Concept will be carried out by the executive authorities within the framework of the established powers through the implementation of an action plan for the development of the system of domestic food aid in the Russian Federation. The purpose of this study is to analyze the possibilities of organizing domestic food aid in the Russian Federation.

Within the past decades, we observe the growth of the meat production both in developed and developing countries. World meat production in 2010-2018 increased by 16% from 286 million tons to 331 million tons, according to the data of Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). During this period, the poultry meat production has demonstrated the most intensive increase – by 24% (pig meat production – by 12%, beef and veal production – by 9%, sheepmeat production – by 13%). Consumption of poultry meat increases regardless of region or their income level. But per capita consumption growth rates will remain higher in developing countries. In many countries, the poultry industry is the only livestock sector that has managed to be successfully adapted to the market economy conditions. The governments of many developed countries strongly supported the industry during this period. The growth of the poultry meat production was ensured not only by the increase in poultry population, but also by the transfer of the industry to an intensive industrial basis. Success of the poultry industry is a fundamentally new and to some extent an unexpected trend in the world agriculture. It can be called a «poultry-farming revolution». The aim of this article is to evaluate the influence of the poultry industry on world food supply. Structural changes in global meat market are analyzed based on recent FAO statistical databases with special attention to geographic concentration or relocation of production and trade across major geographical zones. The findings indicate some possible shifts in export and import structure of meat in near future.

Improving the productivity of smallholder farms in Sub-Saharan Africa offers the best chance to reduce poverty among this generation of rural poor, by building on the limited resources farming households already possess. It is also the best and shortest path to meet rising food needs. Using examples from farmers' maize and rice fields, and comparisons with Asia, this paper examines why the set of technologies promoted to date have produced localized successes rather than transformational change. The paper explains the limitations of alternative policies that are not centered on small farms. It provides indicative examples of how resource-management technologies can supplement seed-fertilizer technologies to speed an African Green Revolution.

The report Africa Can Help Feed Africa (World Bank 2012) showed that increasing food staples1 supply can be met by better connecting African markets to each other. That report called for a stronger focus on removing trade barriers and building on the forces of regional integration. This report builds on the lessons of Africa Can Help Feed Africa by looking into the specific circum¬stances met in West Africa, home to one-third of the continent’s population and to some of its most vulnerable countries. Staple foods are the main source of calories in Africa and in West Africa. In that region, rice, followed by maize and cassava, provides the main source of calories in coastal countries, with millet and sorghum being an important source of food in Sahelian countries (Haggblade et al. 2012). The challenge of food supply is particularly acute in West Africa with some of the world’s fastest growing populations, including urban populations. West Africa’s 2011 population of 342 million is expected to increase to 516 million by 2030 and to 815 million by 2050 (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division 2013); in this time frame, the region’s urban population will grow from 44 percent to 63 percent of the total population (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division 2014). As this report will show, strong reasons exist to bring a more strategic focus on promoting regional trade. The first compelling reason is that there is already a sizeable amount of trade in the region, revealing existing important complementarities between countries in the ECOWAS space. Because a large share of this trade is informal, this reality is not always well taken into account. A second reason is that developing these complementarities by facilitating trade and creating the regional soft and hard infra¬structure to incite cross-border flows would further enable (a) the exploitation of comparative advan¬tages and economies of scale in the region; (b) access to and diffusion of better production technologies; (c) competitive access to inputs, research, and extension services; and (d) improved security in the face of shocks that lead to food crises. Finally, a third reason is that existing national policies that affect trade are, by and large, inefficient and incoherent at the regional level; therefore a better use of policy making and institutions is needed to achieve food policy objectives.

This report provides an analysis of food security in Moldova. It attempts to outline the specific characteristics of food insecurity found in Moldova and to identify its underlying causes. This report provides a basis on which sound public policy can be built. The understanding of food security as a concept has evolved in Moldova over time, but policy has remained focused on food availability as the primary attribute of food security. The report looks at how many people are food insecure in Moldova, where these people live, who they are, and why they face food security challenges. The report adopts the international food security concept and analytical framework based on the four key dimensions: (i) the availability of food; (ii) access to food; (iii) utilization of food; and (iv) the stability of these three dimensions over time. The report is divided into following parts. The part one outlines the methodology used and provides a brief overview of Moldovas agriculture sector. In part two the report focuses on overall food security outcomes by assessing how many people are food insecure in Moldova, where do they live, who they are, and when is food security most affecting them. Part three provides a comprehensive analysis of the four dimensions of food security (availability, access, utilization, and stability) and identifies bottlenecks. Part four introduces the institutional actors and the policy framework. The report concludes with policy recommendations.

This paper builds on the global experience and Mali s context to identify an effective nutrition approach as well as costs and benefits of key nutrition programs, as part of a resilience agenda after the crisis. It is intended to help guide the selection of the most cost-effective interventions as well as strategies for scaling these up. The paper looks at both relevant nutrition-specific interventions, largely delivered through the health sector, and at multisectoral nutrition-sensitive interventions delivered through other sectors such as agriculture, social protection, and water and sanitation that have the potential to strengthen nutritional outcomes in Mali. We first estimate that the costs and benefits of implementing 10 nutrition-specific interventions in all regions of Mali would require a yearly public investment of $64 million. The expected benefits are large: annually about 480,000 Disability-adjusted Life Years (DALYs) and more than 14,000 lives would be saved and over 260,000 cases of stunting among children under five would be averted. However, because it is unlikely that the Government of Mali or its partners will find the $64 million necessary to reach full national coverage, we also consider three potential scale-up scenarios based on considerations of their potential for impact, the burden of stunting, resource requirements, and implementation capacity. Using cost-benefit analyses, we propose scale-up scenarios that represent a compromise between the need to move to full coverage and the constraints imposed by limited resources. We identify and cost six nutrition-sensitive interventions that are relevant to Mali s context and for which there are both evidence of positive impact on nutrition outcomes and some cost information. These findings point to a powerful set of nutrition-specific interventions and a candidate list of nutrition-sensitive approaches that represent a highly cost-effective approach to reducing child malnutrition in Mali.

This paper estimates country-specific costs and benefits of scaling up key nutrition investments in Nigeria. Building on the methodology established in the global report scaling up nutrition: what will it cost? Authors first estimate the costs and benefits of a nationwide scale up of ten effective nutrition-specific interventions. This will require an annual public investment of $837 million and would yield enormous benefits: over 8.7 million DALYs and 183,000 lives would be saved annually, while more than 3 million cases of stunting among children under five will be averted. As it is unlikely that the Government of Nigeria or its partners will find the $837 million necessary to reach full national coverage, authors also consider five potential scale-up scenarios based on considerations of burden of stunting, potential for impact, resource requirements and capacity for implementation in Nigeria. Using cost-benefit analyses authors propose scale-up scenarios that represent a compromise between the need to move to full coverage and the constraints imposed by limited resources and capacities. This analysis takes an innovative approach to nutrition costing by not only estimating the costs and benefits of nutrition-specific interventions, but also exploring costs for a selected number of nutrition-sensitive interventions implemented outside of the health sector. We identify and cost four candidate nutrition-sensitive interventions with impact potential in Nigeria, including bio-fortification of cassava, aflatoxin control, school-based deworming, and school-based promotion of good hygiene. Overall, these findings point to a candidate list of nutrition-sensitive approaches that represent a cost-effective approach to reducing child malnutrition in Nigeria. Moving forward, these results are intended to help guide decision makers as they plan future efforts to scale-up action against malnutrition in Nigeria and develop nutrition financing plans that bring to bear resources from the health, social protection, education, and agriculture sectors.

Economic growth, job creation, and development are central to the decade of transformation (2015-25) and long-term security for the people of Afghanistan. The Bank and the Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (GoIRA) recognize that agriculture and rural development are a key to inclusive growth, and hence need renewed vigor and strategic long-term investments. Further, the Bank and the GoIRA acknowledge that increases in agricultural productivity and market access for smallholders are critical for rural development, job creation, and food security in Afghanistan. Sections two and three of this report describe the agricultural sector and its current and potential roles in the Afghan economy, and present the rationale for choosing certain areas and subsectors for a selective 'first mover' strategy to achieve early gains. Section four outlines the constraints and potential in each of the three value chains proposed for the selective strategy, irrigated wheat, intensive livestock production, and horticulture. Section five describes cross-cutting constraints and how best to address them, and Section six proposes measures to help the rural poor who will not benefit much from the first-mover strategy. Section seven summarizes the recommendations of the review and their expected results for jobs and incomes.

The study covered a wide range of topics, making data collection especially challenging. Key informants were sometimes new to their posts and were unable to provide details on specific programs, policies, or coverage rates. Few countries in Latin America and the Caribbean mainstream into their crisis and emergency plans protection of the nutritional status of mothers and children in the first 1,000 days of life. All countries should reinforce the promotion and protection of breastfeeding in emergencies, notably by providing an enabling space for mothers to safely breastfeed their children and by managing the provision of artificial milk formula. It is concerning that during emergencies most countries provide powdered artificial formula instead of ready-to-use artificial milk formula to infants that cannot breastfeed, greatly increasing the risks of illnesses and malnutrition as a result of inappropriate dilution and unsafe water. All countries need to reinforce their monitoring and evaluation systems, including surveillance of food and nutrition insecurity. While most countries have some form of monitoring system, few of those systems are computerized, which impairs timely and informed decision making. Systematic evaluations of emergency and crisis response are seldom performed. A number of countries would benefit from updating their nutrition policy and protocols based on the latest available evidence. Of particular importance are updates to the prevention and treatment of micronutrient deficiencies with micronutrient powders; treatment of acute malnutrition, notably with the use of ready-to-use supplements; and efficient treatment of diarrhea through the use of oral rehydration solution and zinc. Most countries will benefit from adapting the food and water rations given in emergencies to the specific nutritional needs of pregnant and lactating women and children

Despite an unfavourable global economy, economic growth in Bangladesh is projected at close to 6 percent in fiscal 2013 (FY13). Adverse external demand and domestic supply constraints continue to be a drag on growth. Shortfalls in exports and investments due to a possible protracted crisis in the euro area and internal supply constraints may underpin the moderation of growth. Investment targets of the medium term budget framework 2013 to 2017 face major obstacles in shortage of electricity and gas supplies, and poorly functioning roads and ports. One positive prospect on the investment front is the increase in foreign direct investment in FY12, which surpassed the US$ 1 billion for the second time in Bangladesh's history. Fiscal policy is back on track. Fiscal performance in FY12 was favourable, notwithstanding increasing subsidies. The overall budget deficit in FY12 is estimated at 4.5 percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Domestic financing of the deficit declined to 3.2 percent of GDP, from 3.5 percent in FY11. Lower government borrowing from the banking system in the second half of FY12 was a welcome reversal from worrying trends in the first half of the year. The FY13 budget deficit target 5 percent of GDP is modest, though higher than the estimated 4.5 percent of FY12, and is likely to be undershot primarily because of a shortfall in the implementation of the ambitious Tk 550 billion annual development programs, by now a familiar pattern. However, the financing of the deficit may be a challenge with a projected US$2.2 billion net external financing need, substantially more than the $1.4 billion of the revised FY12 budget. The rest of the deficit is projected to be financed from domestic sources, with a still heavy 69 percent reliance on bank borrowing. Bangladesh's economic outlook is subject to several near-term risks. Possible intensification of the euro area crisis may deepen Bangladesh's export slump of the last six months; escalation of global food prices may reverse the recent decline in food inflation; global oil price shock will place the balance of payments under pressure again and shrink fiscal space; banks are susceptible to credit and market risk and the global economic vulnerabilities; and increased political instability and labour unrest may depress investments further.

Global agriculture will face multiple challenges over the coming decades. It must produce more food to feed an increasingly affluent and growing world population that will demand a more diverse diet, contribute to overall development and poverty alleviation in many developing countries, confront increased competition for alternative uses of finite land and water resources, adapt to climate change, and contribute to preserving biodiversity and restoring fragile ecosystems. Climate change will bring higher average temperatures, changes in rainfall patterns, and more frequent extreme events, multiplying the threats to sustainable food security. Addressing these challenges requires co-ordinated responses from the public and private sectors and civil society that will need to be adapted to the specific circumstances of different types of farmers in countries at all levels of development. The recommendations provided are broadly of two types: specific actions that can contribute in some way to improving productivity growth or sustainable resource use (whether building on existing initiatives or suggesting new activities) and more general proposals that may not be actionable as presented but that serve to highlight areas for priority attention. This report also invites G20 countries to engage in a medium, to long-term, analysis-based peer review of policies fostering sustainable productivity growth, which would identify specific constraints and opportunities, beginning with their own food and agriculture sectors. In addition to possible benefits to participating countries, a peer review process could contribute to the identification of best policies and best policy packages to achieve the widely held aim of sustainably improving productivity of the global food and agriculture system. While such an initiative is proposed to and for G20 countries, it could have much wider application to interested countries.

This issue includes the following headings: seeds and soil: smallholder agriculture; innovation: pairing commercial buyers with rural producers; grain storage: a ready role for public-private partnerships (PPPs); agricultural clusters: powering Africas agricultural potential; and interviews: AgDevCo, bill and Melinda gates foundation, earth policy institute.

Arab countries face a number of food security risks due to their high dependence on wheat imports. This study explores ways in which countries can mitigate these risks. The authors evaluate the wheat import supply chain (WISC) from the unloading port to bulk storage at the flour mill, before the wheat is milled into flour. Existing literature treats isolated topics related to the supply chain, such as strategic storage and the use of financial instruments. This study is unique in that it takes a holistic view of the supply chain by examining how strategic storage, logistics improvements, and procurement strategies can all be used to improve food security. This study considers three critical aspects to the WISC and proposes several strategies Arab countries may consider to mitigate import risks: strategic storage (chapter two): maintain strategic wheat reserves to weather times of crisis and food supply disruptions and to contribute to domestic and international price stabilization effects. Logistics (chapter three): promote investments throughout the supply chain that create smooth logistics, improve security, provide a reliable supply of wheat, reduce the base cost of importing wheat, and reduce product losses. Procurement (chapter four): develop a procurement strategy that leverages strategic partnerships while maintaining a diversified portfolio of suppliers and mitigates import risks through the use of hedging strategies. Currently, overall storage capacity in the region averages the equivalent of six months of consumption, and estimated ending stocks average four and one-half months. However, many Arab countries are planning to increase their strategic wheat reserves as a policy to improve food security. This can provide them with critical lead time to secure alternative wheat supplies or supply routes during times of crisis. Reserves also offer psychological benefits that may prevent hoarding and pilferage.

After almost a year of political, economic, and security upheaval, Yemen has now embarked on a new political path based on an agreement brokered by the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) and overseen by the United Nations, or UN and the international community. The agreement was signed on November 23, 2011, after former President Saleh, the ruling party (GPC), and the opposition parties agreed to a political transition, dialogue, and political reforms. A transitional government of national unity was formed and confirmed by the Parliament in early December 2011. The transition President Hadi was elected on February, 21 2012, for the period spanning to the planned next general elections in the first half of 2014. In an environment of political tensions, the President made progress in reforming the security institutional set-up, in reducing the influence of Al-Qaeda forces, and in preparing for a national dialogue.

Although official warfare in the Republic of Congo stopped more than eight years ago, the pool region has continued to feel the collateral effects of war until now at a scale largely ignored by the general public. The pool region is where the Ninjas, a group of local militias, originated during the civil strife and retreated to afterwards. Peace and recovery did not gain traction in the area until 2010/11. Key findings of this analysis of the disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) process include: The lack of a public security presence: the pool region has largely been deprived of public security forces over the past thirteen years (1998-2010), which led to power abuse. Until recently, several Ninja bases remained throughout the pool region, led by free-riding commanders operating independently of any official Ninja structure. The recognition of intra-regional disparity: warfare affected localities very differently. While the southern districts have been calm for the past eight years, abuse was regularly reported along the railroad prior to 2011. The economic situation of ex-combatants: There have been many self-demobilizations in the past decade, and many ex-combatants have already learned to cope. The heterogeneity of ex-combatants: ex-combatants do not constitute a homogeneous group. Therefore, their reintegration needs differ. The consulting team developed a typology to help understand the profiles of all ex-combatants. Non-targeted assistance: the consulting team recommends pairing recent governmental disarmament operations with community driven reconstruction programming to provide closure to the population affected by the war. The main focus of programming should be to reenergize local economies destroyed by the war, especially medium-scale agriculture and animal husbandry, and to open up the region to development. The objective of this study was to analyze the extent of reintegration of ex-combatants in the pool region and to formulate recommendations for potential future action.

Backed by sound economic policies and until the global crisis, a buoyant global economy, many developing countries made significant movement toward achieving the 2015millennium Development Goals (MDGs), particularly those for poverty reduction, gender parity in education, and reliable access to safe water. But even before the global economic crisis, progress in achieving some MDGs, especially those on child and maternal mortality, primary school completion, hunger, and sanitation, was lagging. The global food, fuel and economic crises have set back progress to the MDGs. An estimated 64 million more people are living on less than $1.25/day than there would have been without the crisis. The challenges ahead are achieving the MDGs requires a vibrant global economy, powered by strong, sustainable, multi-polar growth, underpinned by sound policies and reform at the country level; improving access for the poor to health, education, affordable food, trade, finance, and basic infrastructure is key to accelerating progress to the MDGs; developing countries need to continue to strengthen resilience to global volatility in order to protect gains and sustain progress toward the MDGs; the international community must renew its commitment to reach the 'bottom billion', particularly those in fragile and conflict-affected countries; and global support for a comprehensive development agenda including through the G20 process is critical. In the wake of recent global crises, and with the 2015 deadline approaching, business as usual is not enough to meet the MDGs.

This paper provides a synthetic overview of the link between food insecurity and conflict, addressing both traditional (civil and interstate war) and emerging (regime stability, violent rioting and communal conflict) threats to security and political stability. In addition, it addresses the various attempts by national governments, intergovernmental organizations, and civil society to address food insecurity and, in particular, the link with conflict. It begins with a discussion of the various effects of food insecurity for several types of conflict, and discusses the interactions among political, social, and demographic factors that may exacerbate these effects. It then discusses the capabilities of states, international markets, intergovernmental organizations, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to break the link between food security and conflict by focusing on mechanisms that can shield both food consumers and producers from short-term price instability. Finally, it discusses projected trends in both food insecurity and conflict and concludes with some brief comments on policies that can build resilience in light of projections of higher and volatile food prices and a changing climate.

Dramatic changes took place in agricultural policies in Europe in the 19th and 20th century. In the 1860s European nations agreed on a series of trade agreements which spread free trade across the continent. In the 1960s European nations concluded an international agreement which spread heavy Government intervention and protection against imports across the continent. This paper offers hypotheses as to the causes of these dramatic changes in agricultural protection.

In this paper, the authors discuss the ways in which national governments, firms, and individuals respond to policy related to food safety, environmental protection, and trade. These responses must be considered in the development of policy to ensure the best possible outcomes. It accounts for uncertainty about policy impacts and scientific knowledge and incorporates stochastic environmental factors. The authors argue use of such a model in the development of health and environmental policy can overcome capture by domestic forces opposed to trade liberalization. The effectiveness of policy, of course, is dependent upon firm and consumer response to policy. Section one describes the impacts of international transfer of species and genetic material, paying particular attention to the introduction of alien invasive species. Section two discusses issues surrounding trade in environmental amenities. Food safety and environmental regulations are reviewed in section three, along with mechanisms by which such policy can serve as a proxy for protectionists. Section four develops a risk assessment model that can be used in policy design. Section five considers the role of institutional, firm and individual behavior in the development and effectiveness of policy. Section six summarizes our analysis in offering an agenda for trade talks.

The Industrial Age has been made possible by cheap, abundant fossil fuels, primarily petroleum and coal. The life expectancy of an industrial civilization is about 100 years. Some forecasts estimate the critical period of the current age to be from 1930 to approximately 2030. A key to this range is peak oil, which may occur in 2007. After peak oil, a terminal decline will occur in the industrial civilization because replacement or substitute energy sources are not as attractive as petroleum. Coal is a poor replacement for petroleum and produces twice as many greenhouse gases and also is finite in reserves. Nuclear energy poses formidable radioactive waste disposal problems, and, in France and Spain, nuclear power plants had to shut down when the cooling water became too warm. Biofuels have serious problems, the worst of which is reducing the food supply. Predictions that the human population will reach 9 billion in 2050 means less per capita energy even if energy availability does not diminish and much less per capita if it does diminish as peak oil models predict. The post-industrial age is almost certain to be an age of scarcity with painful contrasts to the cornucopian Industrial Age. Alternative energy sources such as wind and solar are essential, but will not replace the "fossil sunlight" of the Industrial Age.