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The EC (European Council) Directive on radiation protection of patients requires that criteria for acceptability of equipment in diagnostic radiology, nuclear medicine and radiotherapy be established throughout the member states. This study reviews the background to this requirement and to its implementation in practice. It notes and considers parallel requirements in the EC medical devices directive and International Electrotechnical Commission standards that it is also important to consider and that both sets of requirements should ideally be harmonised due to the global nature of the equipment industry. The study further reviews the types of criteria that can be well applied for the above purposes, and defines qualitative criteria and suspension levels suitable for application. Both are defined and relationships with other acceptance processes are considered (including acceptance testing at the time of purchase, commissioning and the issue of second-hand equipment). Suspension levels are divided into four types, A, B, C and D, depending on the quality of evidence and consensus they are based on. Exceptional situations involving, for example, new or rapidly evolving technology are also considered. The publication and paper focuses on the role of the holder of the equipment and related staff, particularly the medical physics expert and the practitioner. Advice on how the criteria should be created and implemented is provided for these groups and how this might be coordinated with the supplier. Additional advice on the role of the regulator is provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the development of the CT scanner in the early 1970s, CT scanner technology has continuously developed through technical advancement, faster computer processing, superior detectors and helical and multi-detector scanning modes. As a result, the scope of clinical examinations has broadened considerably, and in parallel, this has been achieved with improvement in image quality and radiation dose efficiency. Despite this, and perhaps because image quality can always be improved at the expense of increased radiation dose, CT examinations are among the highest-dose procedures encountered routinely in medical imaging. The qualitative criteria for acceptability in RP 162 address some functional and operational issues, and the quantitative criteria, in the form of suspension levels, focus primarily around hardware aspects of the CT scanner, though consideration is also given to software, operator aspects and selection of scan protocols. Some of the specific aspects and challenges in modern CT systems, in particular multi-slice and wide beams are also addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cone beam CT is integral to most modern radiotherapy treatments. The application of daily and repeat CBCT imaging can lead to high imaging doses over a large volume of tissue that extends beyond the treatment site. Hence, it is important to ensure exposures are optimised to keep doses as low as reasonably achievable, whilst ensuring images are suitable for the clinical task. This IPEM topical report presents the results of the first UK survey of dose indices in radiotherapy CBCT. Dose measurements, as defined by the cone beam dose index (CBDI w ), were collected along with protocol information for seven treatment sites. Where a range of optimised protocols were available in a centre, a sample of patient data demonstrating the variation in protocol use were requested. Protocol CBDI w values were determined from the average dosimetry data for each type of linear accelerator, and median CBDI w and scan length were calculated for each treatment site at each centre. Median CBDI w values were compared and summary statistics derived that enable the setting of national dose reference levels (DRLs). A total of 63 UK radiotherapy centres contributed data. The proposed CBDI w DRLs are; prostate 20.6 mGy, gynaecological 20.8 mGy, breast 5.0 mGy, 3D-lung 6.0 mGy, 4D-lung 11.8 mGy, brain 3.5 mGy and head/neck 4.2 mGy. However, large differences between models of imaging system were noted. Where centres had pro-active optimisation strategies in place, such as sized based protocols with selection criteria, dose reductions on the 'average' patient were possible compared with vendor defaults. Optimisation of scan length was noted in some clinical sites, with Elekta users tending to fit different collimators for prostate imaging (relatively short) compared with gynaecological treatments (longest). This contrasts with most Varian users who apply the default scan length in most cases., (© 2024 Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine. All rights, including for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies, are reserved.)

The paper presents the results of the activities under the IAEA Technical Cooperation programme in Europe and Central Asia, aiming to improve utilization of diagnostic reference levels (DRLs) in the region through identifying status, problems, and gaps in establishing and utilization of the DRLs, and suggesting potential solutions. Status was identified through a survey with two electronic questionnaires answered by the regulatory bodies for radiation protection of 26 IAEA Member States and 34 representatives of relevant professional bodies of medical physics, radiology, nuclear medicine or radiographers. Problems, good practices and potential solutions were identified as a result of the discussion during a regional workshop with 50 nominated representatives of 21 countries. Results were disseminated through open webinars. Existing gaps are related to the lack of adequate regulations in some countries, inadequate awareness of radiological professionals of DRLs as a tool for optimization, insufficient cooperation among relevant stakeholders, education, and staffing. Strengthening of the cooperation between regulatory and professional bodies could benefit the awareness and consequently the utilization of DRLs in clinical practice. The need of improved education and training of the DRL process was highlighted. Improved inspection procedures and education of inspectors would also support the process. Access to clinically qualified medical physicists was found to be critical for the DRL utilization. Suggestions were placed for continuous IAEA assistance through training, guidance and expert support., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023 Associazione Italiana di Fisica Medica e Sanitaria. All rights reserved.)

Objective . Development of a method to provide organ and effective dose coefficients to reference adults for any CT scanner based on values of CTDI measured both in air and in standard CT dosimetry phantoms. Approach . Results from previous Monte Carlo simulations for a range of contemporary CT scanners have been analyzed to provide linear models relating values of organ dose (normalized to CTDI free-in-air ), for each slab of 3 reference phantoms (ICRP Male/Female, and AH hermaphrodite), to similarly normalized values of CTDI in standard CT dosimetry phantoms. Three methods have been investigated to apply the models to values of CTDI for a 'new' scanner not previously simulated: a Generic approach using averaged normalized organ dose profiles for whole body exposure of the phantoms; and two processes for matching the scanner, on the basis of normalized organ doses or effective dose ( n E 103, phan ), to one of the 102 sets of dose coefficients previously calculated for 12 contemporary CT scanner models, from 4 manufacturers, operating under a range of conditions. Main results . The merit of each method has been quantitatively assessed when applied to both the present contemporary scanners with each test data set being excluded in turn during the matching process, and also to 3 previously-simulated older scanners. Whereas all three methods appear viable, with all doses being within 1% and 10% for the contemporary and old scanners respectively, matching to n E 103, phan is overall the approach preferred in practice, yielding an uncertainty of around 6% in estimated values of n E 103, phan . The present methodology also provides superior performance when compared against some other common normalization factors for E 103, phan . Significance . The CT dose model and the data sets will be incorporated into a new CT dosimetry tool that will be made available from UKHSA in support of facilitating improvements in patient protection., (© 2023 Crown Copyright, UK Health Security Agency.)

Objective. Provide analyses of new organ dose coefficients (hereafter also referred to as normalized doses) for CT that have been developed to update the widely-utilized collection of data published 30 years ago in NRPB-SR250. Approach. In order to reflect changes in technology, and also ICRP recommendations concerning use of the computational phantoms adult male (AM) and adult female (AF), 102 series of new Monte Carlo simulations have been performed covering the range of operating conditions for 12 contemporary models of CT scanner from 4 manufacturers. Normalized doses (relative to free air on axis) have been determined for 39 organs, and for every 8 mm or 4.84 mm slab of AM and AF, respectively. Main results. Analyses of results confirm the significant influence (by up to a few tens of percent), on values of normalized organ (or contributions to effective dose ( E 103,phan )), for whole body exposure arising from selection of tube voltage and beam shaping filter. Use of partial (when available) rather than a Full fan beam reduced both organ and effective dose by up to 7%. Normalized doses to AF were larger than corresponding figures for AM by up to 30% for organs and by 10% for E 103,phan . Additional simulations for whole body exposure have also demonstrated that: practical simplifications in the main modelling (point source, single slice thickness, neglect of patient couch and immobility of phantom arms) have sufficiently small (<5%) effect on E 103,phan ; mis-centring of the phantom away from the axis of rotation by 5 mm (in any direction) leads to changes in normalized organ dose and E 103,phan by up to 20% and 6%, respectively; and angular tube current modulation can result in reductions by up to 35% and <15% in normalized organ dose and E 103,phan , respectively, for 100% cosine variation. Significance. These analyses help advance understanding of the influence of operational scanner settings on organ dose coefficients for contemporary CT, in support of improved patient protection. The results will allow the future development of a new dose estimation tool., (© 2022 Crown Copyright, UK Health Security Agency.)

Objective: To present the results following a UK national patient dose audit of paediatric CT examinations, to propose updated UK national diagnostic reference levels (DRLs) and to analyse current practice to see if any recommendations can be made to assist with optimisation., Methods: A UK national dose audit was undertaken in 2019 focussing on paediatric CT examinations of the head, chest, abdomen/pelvis and cervical spine using the methods proposed by the International Commission on Radiological Protection. The audit pro-forma contained mandatory fields, of which the post-examination dosimetry (volume CT dose index and dose-length product) and the patient weight (for body examinations) were the most important., Results: Analysis of the data submitted indicates that it is appropriate to propose national DRLs for CT head examinations in the 0-<1, 1-<5, 5-<10 and 10-<15 year age ranges. This extends the number of age categories of national DRLs from those at present and revises the existing values downwards. For CT chest examinations, it is appropriate to propose national DRLs for the first time in the UK for the 5-<15, 15-<30, 30-<50 and 50-<80 kg weight ranges. There were insufficient data received to propose national DRLs for abdomen/pelvis or cervical spine examinations. Recommendations towards optimisation focus on the use of tube current (mA) modulation, iterative reconstruction and the selection of examination tube voltage (kV p )., Conclusion: Updated UK national DRLs are proposed for paediatric CT examinations of the head and chest., Advances in Knowledge: A national patient dose audit of paediatric CT examinations has led to the proposal of updated national DRLs.

CT scans are an integral component of modern radiotherapy treatments, enabling the accurate localisation of the treatment target and organs-at-risk, and providing the tissue density information required for the calculation of dose in the treatment planning system. For these reasons, it is important to ensure exposures are optimised to give the required clinical image quality with doses that are as low as reasonably achievable. However, there is little guidance in the literature on dose levels in radiotherapy CT imaging either within the UK or internationally. This IPEM topical report presents the results of the first UK wide survey of dose indices in radiotherapy CT planning scans. Patient dose indices were collected for prostate, gynaecological, breast, lung 3D, lung 4D, brain and head and neck scans. Median values per scanner and examination type were calculated and national dose reference levels and 'achievable levels' of CT dose index (CTDI vol ), dose-length-product (DLP) and scan length are proposed based on the third quartile and median values of these distributions, respectively. A total of 68 radiotherapy CT scanners were included in this audit. The proposed dose reference levels for CTDI vol and DLP are; prostate 16 mGy and 570 mGy · cm, gynaecological 16 mGy and 610 mGy · cm, breast 10 mGy and 390 mGy · cm, lung 3D 14 mGy and 550 mGy · cm, lung 4D 63 mGy and 1750 mGy · cm, brain 50 mGy and 1500 mGy · cm and head and neck 49 mGy and 2150 mGy · cm. Significant variations in dose indices were noted, with head and neck and lung 4D yielding a factor of eighteen difference between the lowest and highest dose scanners. There was also evidence of some clustering in the data by scanner manufacturer, which may be indicative of a lack of local optimisation of individual systems to the clinical task. It is anticipated that providing this data to the UK and wider radiotherapy community will aid the optimisation of treatment planning CT scan protocols.

This is the second paper arising from a project concerning the application of Monte Carlo simulations to provide scanner-specific organ dose coefficients for modern CT scanners. The present focus is centred on the bone dosimetry models that have been developed. Simulations have been performed in photon only transport mode, with the assumption of electron equilibrium. This approximation breaks down for doses to active marrow and endosteum since the target cells are localised within tens of micrometre from bone tissue and dose enhancement functions are necessary to correct for the additional dose from photoelectric electrons created in adjacent material. The dose enhancement models used previously in publications NRPB-SR250 (Jones and Shrimpton 1993 Software Report NRPB-SR250, National Radiological Protection Board, Chilton, UK) and ORNL-TM8381 (Cristy and Eckerman 1987 Technical Report Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN) have been implemented and compared with the contemporary approaches of Johnson et al (2011 Phys. Med. Biol. 56 2347-65) and ICRP Publication 116 (ICRP 2010 Ann. ICRP 40 1-257) that are being adopted in the present project. In addition, the calculation of dose to endosteum in the medullary cavity is reviewed and updated using electron mode simulations. For the purposes of quality assurance and comparison, the various dose enhancement functions have been applied in relation to the NRPB18+DJ and HPA18+  stylised hermaphrodite phantoms and also the adult male and female voxel phantoms recommended in ICRP Publication 110 (ICRP 2009 Ann. ICRP 39 1-165), for exposure from three CT scanners modelled previously. Contemporary results for standard examinations on the head and trunk calculated for these latter phantoms demonstrate moderate increases (modal value  +18%) in active marrow dose coefficients relative to values derived from data published in NRPB-SR250. A similar analysis in relation to endosteum dose coefficients shows larger reductions (modal value  -46%), owing at least in part to changes in assumed location of the target cells. Even larger changes are apparent for both of these dose coefficients in relation to examination of the upper legs (-39% and  -94%, respectively). However, resultant changes in any values of effective dose will be less owing to the low weighting factors applied for these tissues.

Objective: To review doses to patients undergoing cervical spine CT examinations in the UK., Methods: A data collection form was developed and distributed to medical physicists and radiographers via e-mail distribution lists. The form requested details of CT scanners, exposure protocols and patient dose index information., Results: Data were received for 73 scanners. It was seen that 97% of scanners used automatic exposure control, and 60% of scanners used an iterative reconstruction technique for cervical spine examinations. The majority of scans were taken at 120 kV. The average patient dose indicators in terms of CT dose index (CTDI vol ) ranged from 3.5 to 39.7 mGy (mean value 16.7 mGy), and for the DLP, ranged from 87 to 1030 mGy cm (mean value 379 mGy cm) as quoted for the standard 32 cm phantom., Conclusion: The rounded third quartile value of the mean dose distributions from this study were a CT dose index (CTDI vol ) of 20 mGy and a dose-length product of 440 mGy cm as quoted for a 32 cm body phantom. These are significantly higher than those in the 2011 Public Health England CT dose survey when adjusted for phantom size. It is suggested that the existing national diagnostic reference levels for cervical spine CT should be amended, both with the new values and also to quote according to the 32 cm phantom. Advances in knowledge: Proposed new national diagnostic reference levels are presented for cervical spine CT examinations.

Purpose: We sought to compare objectively computed tomography (CT) scanner performance for three clinically relevant protocols using a task-based image quality assessment method in order to assess the potential for radiation dose reduction., Methods: Four CT scanners released between 2003 and 2007 by different manufacturers were compared with four CT scanners released between 2012 and 2014 by the same manufacturers using ideal linear model observers (MO): prewhitening (PW) MO and channelized Hotelling (CHO) MO with Laguerre-Gauss channels for high-contrast spatial resolution and low-contrast detectability (LCD) performance, respectively. High-contrast spatial resolution was assessed using a custom-made phantom that enabled the computation of the target transfer function (TTF) and noise power spectrum (NPS). Low-contrast detectability was assessed using a commercially available anthropomorphic abdominal phantom providing equivalent diameters of 24, 29.6, and 34.6 cm. Three protocols were reviewed: a head (trauma) and an abdominal (urinary stones) protocol were applied to assess high-contrast spatial resolution performance; and another abdominal (focal liver lesions) protocol was applied for LCD. The liver protocol was tested using fixed and modulated tube currents. The PW MO was proposed for assessing high-contrast detectability performance of the various CT scanners., Results: Compared with older generation CT scanners, three newer systems displayed significant improvements in high-contrast detectability over that of their predecessors. A fourth, newer system had lower performance. The CHO MO was appropriate for assessing LCD performance and revealed that an excellent level of image quality could be obtained with newer scanners at significantly lower dose levels., Conclusions: This study shows that MO can objectively benchmark CT scanners using a task-based image quality method, thus helping to estimate the potential for further dose reductions offered by the latest systems. Such an approach may be useful for adequately and quantitatively comparing clinically relevant image quality among various scanners., (© 2017 The Authors. Medical Physics published by Wiley periodicals, Inc. on behalf of American Association of Physicists in Medicine.)

The aim of the guideline presented in this article is to unify the test parameters for image quality evaluation and radiation output in all types of cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) systems. The applications of CBCT spread over dental and interventional radiology, guided surgery and radiotherapy. The chosen tests provide the means to objectively evaluate the performance and monitor the constancy of the imaging chain. Experience from all involved associations has been collected to achieve a consensus that is rigorous and helpful for the practice. The guideline recommends to assess image quality in terms of uniformity, geometrical precision, voxel density values (or Hounsfield units where available), noise, low contrast resolution and spatial resolution measurements. These tests usually require the use of a phantom and evaluation software. Radiation output can be determined with a kerma-area product meter attached to the tube case. Alternatively, a solid state dosimeter attached to the flat panel and a simple geometric relationship can be used to calculate the dose to the isocentre. Summary tables including action levels and recommended frequencies for each test, as well as relevant references, are provided. If the radiation output or image quality deviates from expected values, or exceeds documented action levels for a given system, a more in depth system analysis (using conventional tests) and corrective maintenance work may be required., (Copyright © 2017. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Objectives: The aim of this study was to conduct a nationwide survey of computed tomography (CT) doses for a wide range of PET-CT and single photon emission computed tomography-computed tomography (SPECT-CT) imaging procedures, with the aim of generating proposed UK national diagnostic reference levels (NDRLs)., Methods: CT protocol and dosimetry data for three PET-CT and seven SPECT-CT examinations were gathered from centres across the UK. Data were divided according to CT purpose (attenuation correction, localization or diagnostic) and third quartile values of scanner average dose metrics were used to generate suggested NDRLs for a range of examination and CT purpose combinations. Achievable doses were also established from the median of the dose distributions., Results: Data were obtained from 47 centres, allowing suggested NDRLs to be produced for fluorine-18-fluorodeoxyglucose half-body PET-CT, and parathyroid, post-thyroid ablation, meta-iodobenzylguanidine/octreotide, cardiac and bone SPECT-CT examinations.Variations in dose of up to a factor of 35 were observed for a given examination/CT purpose combination. For fluorine-18-fluorodeoxyglucose half-body PET-CT examination dose levels for the three CT purposes overlapped, which highlights the variability in the way in which CT purposes are interpreted across the UK. This lack of standardization is believed to be the largest contributor to the dose variations that were observed. The survey highlighted the need for targeted optimization work in many centres., Conclusion: Suggested UK NDRLs and achievable doses for six common PET-CT and SPECT-CT examinations have been established as a result of this study.