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Purpose of Review Forests provide multiple ecosystem services (ES) to society, and the demand for ES is growing at the global level. However, how to manage forests for the provision of multiple and sometimes conflicting services is a complex and still unresolved issue. In this study, we reviewed the scientific literature for the period 2010–2020 dealing with forest management and multiple ES in Mediterranean forests, with the aim of (1) outlining the progress in research, (2) identifying knowledge gaps and research needs, and (3) discussing management approaches considering multiple ES. The selected literature was analyzed considering different aspects of multiple ES (e.g., drivers of changes, modeling approaches, trade-offs, and synergies). Recent Findings Our results show that wood production is still one of the main management objectives, with an increasing attention toward non wood forest products. Carbon sequestration and biodiversity were the most investigated regulating functions, but also specific aspects are gaining attention (e.g., lichens for microclimate regulation). Changes in stand structure and density, the impact of coppice vs. high forest, and the effect of management practices vs. abandonment were considered as drivers of change at the stand/management unit scale, while the impact of climate changes and disturbances were considered at the landscape/regional scale using modeling. Summary Despite the progress made in the last decade, our review highlights that further research is needed to fill the gaps in the scientific literature regarding how forest management influences the provision of multiple ES in the Mediterranean region. From a conceptual point of view, there is the need for a shift to a new paradigm based on an adaptable, flexible management, and planning approach to sustain self-organization, adaptive capacity, and overall resilience of Mediterranean forests, overcoming the ecosystem “service” approach; operatively, research should move toward a transdisciplinary approach, which considers problems from a diversity of points of view and involves extended peer communities not only in the dissemination of research results, but also in the research process itself.

Forest planning, forest management, and forest policy require updated, reliable, and harmonized spatial datasets. In Italy a national geographic Forest Information System (FIS) designed to store and facilitate the access and analysis of spatial datasets is still missing. Among the different information layers which are useful to start populating a FIS, two are essential for their multiple use in the assessment of forest resources: (i) forest mapping, and (ii) data from Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS). Both layers are not available wall-to-wall for Italy, though different local sources of information potentially useful for their implementation already exist. The objectives of this work were to: (i) review forest maps and ALS data availability in Italy; (ii) develop for the first time a high resolution forest mask of Italy which was validated against the official statistics of the Italian National Forest Inventory; (iii) develop the first mosaic of all the main ALS data available in Italy producing a consistent Canopy Height Model (CHM). An on-line geographic FIS with free access to both layers from (ii) and (iii) was developed for demonstration purposes. The total area of forest and other wooded lands computed from the forest mask was 102.608.82 km2 (34% of the Italian territory), i.e., 1.9% less than the NFI benchmark estimate. This map is currently the best wall-to-wall forest mask available for Italy. We showed that only the 63% of the Italian territory (the 60% of the forest area) is covered by ALS data. These results highlight the urgent need for a national strategy to complete the availability of forest data in Italy.

[Key message]: The adoption of new silvicultural methods and approaches requires an understanding of the differencesbetween those and“old”or“conventional”approaches, along with extensive training to break previous knowledge bias., [Context]: Forestry is in transition towards ecosystem-based management, and new silvicultural approaches are appearingworldwide. However, the adoption of an alternative silvicultural approach is difficult in practice., [Aims]: We analyzed the effect of forestry background and demographic variables (gender and age) of 24 raters on the application of thesystemic approach (SA) and the conventional approach (CA) in the Northern Apennines (Italy) and compared this with tree markingperformed by experts., [Methods]: Data were analyzed as raters’departures from experts’selections at the stand and the individual tree level. Theprobability of tree selection was also calculated., [Results]: At the stand level, raters with forestry background performed the SA as if they were marking for crown thinning,whereas the CA was less intense than experts’crown thinning. Non-foresters differentiated poorly between the SA and the CA. Atthe individual tree level, background and gender affected tree selection., [Conclusion]: The adoption of the SA as a silvicultural system may be conditioned by previous knowledge. The differencebetween SA and CA remains unclear when it comes to non-foresters. Gender was a more important variable than age in selectingwhich trees would be harvested., LIFE+ PProSpoT (Policy and Protection of Sporadic tree species in Tuscany forests, LIFE09 ENV/IT/000087).

International audience; AbstractKey messageThis work analyses the rate of recovery of the spectral signal from clearcut areas of coppice Mediterranean forests using Landsat Time Series (LTS). The analysis revealed a more rapid rate of spectral signal recovery than what was found in previous investigations in boreal and temperate forests.ContextThe rate of post-disturbance vegetation recovery is an important component of forest dynamics.AimsIn this study, we analyze the recovery of the spectral signal from forest clearcut areas in Mediterranean conditions when the coppice system of forest management is applied.MethodsWe used LTS surface reflectance data (1999–2015).We generated an annual reference database of clearcuts using visual interpretation and local forest inventory data, and then derived the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Normalized Burn Ratio (NBR) spectral trajectories for these clearcuts. From these spectral trajectories, we calculated the Years to Recovery or Y2R, the number of years it takes for a pixel to return to within a specified threshold (i.e., 70%, 80%, 90%, 100%) of its pre-disturbance value. Spectral recovery rates were then corroborated using measures of canopy height derived from airborne laser scanning (ALS) data.ResultsThe coppice system is associated with rapid recovery rates when compared to rates of recovery from seeds or seedlings in temperate and boreal forest conditions. We found that the Y2R derived from the spectral trajectories of post-clearcut NBR and NDVI provided similar characterizations of rapid recovery for the coppice system of forest management applied in our study area. The ALS measures of canopy height indicated that the Y2R metric accurately captured the rapid regeneration of coppice systems.ConclusionThe rapid rate of spectral recovery associated with the coppice system is 2–4 years, which contrasts with values reported in boreal and temperate forest environments, where spectral recovery was attained in approximately 10 years. NBR is an effective index for assessing rapid recovery in this forest system.

Growing demand for wood products, combined with efforts to conserve natural forests, have supported a steady increase in the global extent of planted forests. Here, a two-phase sampling strategy for large-scale assessment of the total area and the total wood volume of fast-growing forest tree crops within agricultural land is presented. The first phase is performed using tessellation stratified sampling on high-resolution remotely sensed imagery and is sufficient for estimating the total area of plantations by means of a Monte Carlo integration estimator. The second phase is performed using stratified sampling of the plantations selected in the first phase and is aimed at estimating total wood volume by means of an approximation of the first-phase Horvitz-Thompson estimator. Vegetation indices from Sentinel-2 are exploited as freely available auxiliary information in a linear regression estimator to improve the design-based precision of the estimator based on the sole sample data. Estimators of the totals and of the design-based variances of total estimators are presented. A simulation study is developed in order to check the design-based performance of the two alternative estimators under several artificial distributions supposed for poplar plantations (random, clustered, spatially trended). An application in Northern Italy is also reported. The regression estimator turns out to be invariably better than that based on the sole sample information. Possible integrations of the proposed sampling scheme with conventional national forest inventories adopting tessellation stratified sampling in the first phase are discussed.

Nowadays, forest inventories are frequently carried out using a combination of field measurements and remote sensing data, often acquired with light detection and ranging (LiDAR) sensors. Several studies have investigated how three-dimensional laser scanning point clouds from different platforms can be used to acquire information traditionally collected with forest instruments, such as hypsometers and callipers to detect single-tree attributes like tree height and diameter at the breast height. The present study has tested the performances of the ZEB1 instrument, a type of hand-held mobile laser scanner, for single-tree attributes estimation in pure Castanea sativa Mill. stands cultivated for fruit production in Central Italy. In particular, the influence of walking scan path density on single-tree attributes estimation (number of trees, tree position, diameter at breast height, tree height, and crown base height) was investigated to test the efficiency of field measures. The point clouds were acquired by walking along straight lines drawn with different spacing: 10 and 15 m apart. A single-tree scan approach, which included walking with the instrument around each tree, was used as reference data. In order to evaluate the efficiency of the survey, the influence of the walking scan path was discussed in relation to the accuracy of single-tree attributes estimation, as well as the time and cost needed for data acquisition, pre-processing, and analysis. Our results show that the 10 m scan path provided the best results, with an omission error of 6%, the assessment of single-tree attributes was successful, with values of the coefficient of determination and the relative root mean square error similar to other studies. The 10 m scan path has also proved to decrease the costs by about &euro, 14 for data pre-processing, and a saving of time for data acquisition and data analysis of about 37 min compared to the reference data.

Several studies have been carried out to investigate soil compaction and rutting after logging vehicle traffic, based on time consuming and punctual field measurements. The objective of this study was to measure soil disturbances with two methods: (i) a new, image-based models derived by a structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetry approach; and (ii) a traditional soil sampling (bulk density and shear strength). Two trails were selected in a logging area (central Italy), one trafficked by a forwarder (FT) and one trafficked by a skidder (ST). Data collection was conducted before, during and after timber extraction. Image-based models derived by SfM photogrammetry was used to highlight the differences in the shape and distribution of the disturbances along ST and FT. Results showed that the physical parameters of soil significantly changed due to both FT and ST traffic. Machine passes increased bulk density (111% and 31% for FT and ST, respectively), penetration resistance (29% and 24% for FT and ST, respectively) and shear resistance (14% and 6% for FT and ST, respectively), whereas porosity decreased (46% and 9% for FT and ST, respectively). Significant differences between FT and ST were found when comparing ruts removal and bulges with SfM photogrammetry. After logging, FT clearly showed ruts and bulges, whereas in ST ruts and bulges were not visible, but soil displacement in the direction of extraction was evident and measurable. Nevertheless, although our result shows a larger soil disturbance caused by forwarders than skidders, it is not possible to draw any general conclusions about differences between the two machines. Data about the machine passes, or the wood volumes transported over each trial area were not available; therefore, any general conclusion is misleading. SfM photogrammetry give information not available via traditional methods, thus improving impact assessment.

Deforestation and intensive land use management with plantations of fast-growing tree species, like Populus spp., may endanger native trees not only by eliminating or reducing their habitats, but also by diminishing their species integrity via hybridization and introgression. The genus Populus has persistent natural hybrids because clonal and sexual reproduction is common. The objective of this study was to assess the effect of land use management of poplar plantations on the spatial genetic structure and species composition in poplar stands. Specifically, we studied the potential breeding between natural and cultivated poplar populations in the Mediterranean environment to gain insight into spontaneous hybridization events between exotic and native poplars; we also used a GIS-based model to evaluate the potential threats related to an intensive land use management. Two study areas, both near to poplar plantations ( P . × euramericana ), were designated in the native mixed stands of P . alba , P . nigra and P . × canescens within protected areas. We found that the spatial genetic structure differed between the two stands and their differences depended on their environmental features. We detected a hybridization event with P . × canescens that was made possible by the synchrony of flowering between the poplar plantation and P . × canescens and facilitated by the wind intensity and direction favoring the spread of pollen. Taken together, our results indicate that natural and artificial barriers are crucial to mitigate the threats, and so they should be explicitly considered in land use planning. For example, our results suggest the importance of conserving rows of trees and shrubs along rivers and in agricultural landscapes. In sum, it is necessary to understand, evaluate, and monitor the spread of exotic species and genetic material to ensure effective land use management and mitigation of their impact on native tree populations.

One of many possible climate change effects in temperate areas is the increase of frequency and severity of windstorms; thus, fast and cost efficient new methods are needed to evaluate wind-induced damages in forests. We present a method for assessing windstorm damages in forest landscapes based on a two-stage sampling strategy using single-date, post-event airborne laser scanning (ALS) data. ALS data are used for delineating damaged forest stands and for an initial evaluation of the volume of fallen trees. The total volume of fallen trees is then estimated using a two-stage model-assisted approach, where variables from ALS are used as auxiliary information in the difference estimator. In the first stage, a sample of the delineated forest stands is selected, and in the second stage the within-stand damages are estimated by means of line intercept sampling (LIS). The proposed method produces maps of windthrown areas, estimates of forest damages in terms of the total volume of fallen trees, and the uncertainty of the estimates. A case study is presented for a large windstorm that struck the Tuscany Region of Italy the night of the 4th and the 5th of March 2015 and caused extensive damages to trees in both forest and urban areas. The pure field-based estimates from LIS and the ALS-based estimates of stand-level fallen wood were very similar. Our positive results demonstrate the utility of the single-date approach for a fast assessment of windthrow damages in forest stands which is especially useful when pre-event ALS data are not available.

International audience; AbstractKey messageThe outcome of the present study leads to the application of a spatially explicit rule-based expert system (RBES) algorithm aimed at automatically classifying forest areas according to the European Forest Types (EFT) system of nomenclature at pan-European scale level. With the RBES, the EFT system of nomenclature can be now easily implemented for objective, replicable, and automatic classification of field plots for forest inventories or spatial units (pixels or polygons) for thematic mapping.ContextForest Types classification systems are aimed at stratifying forest habitats. Since 2006, a common scheme for classifying European forests into 14 categories and 78 types (European Forest Types, EFT) exists.AimsThis work presents an innovative method and automated classification system that, in an objective and replicable way, can accurately classify a given forest habitat according to the EFT system of nomenclature.MethodsA rule-based expert system (RBES) was adopted as a transparent approach after comparison with the well-known Random Forest (RF) classification system. The experiment was carried out based on the information acquired in the field in 2010 ICP level I plots in 17 European countries. The accuracy of the automated classification is evaluated by comparison with an independent classification of the ICP plots into EFT carried out during the BioSoil project field survey. Finally, the RBES automated classifier was tested also for a pixel-based classification of a pan-European distribution map of beech-dominated forests.ResultsThe RBES successfully classified 94% of the plots, against a 92% obtained with RF. When applied to the mapped domain, the accuracy obtained with the RBES for the beech forest map classification was equal to 95%.ConclusionThe RBES algorithm successfully automatically classified field plots and map pixels on the basis of the EFT system of nomenclature. The EFT system of nomenclature can be now easily and objectively implemented in operative transnational European forest monitoring programs.

In recent decades, Mediterranean landscapes have been affected by human-induced drivers, such as land use and climate change. Forest ecosystems and landscapes have been particularly affected in mountainous regions due to limited management and stewardship, especially in remote areas. Therefore, there is a need to set up new strategies to enhance ecosystem services in forested areas which, in turn, will benefit local communities and economies. In this study, we implemented a new approach—Multiscale Mapping of Ecosystem Services (MIMOSE)—to assess ecosystem services in Mediterranean forests located in a mountainous region of Italy. We spatially assessed timber provision and carbon sequestration according to three forest management strategies: business-as-usual, maximizing economic values, and prioritizing conservation. Sustainable strategies for forest planning were identified at the landscape scale. We found that (i) timber provision is a conflicting service, especially when adaptation strategies are promoted; (ii) the most balanced set of forest ecosystem services is achieved through prioritizing conservation; and (iii) the ecosystem services availability is enhanced by optimizing the spatial allocation of different management strategies. Our approach is suitable to support landscape planning for balancing forest ecosystem potentialities while respecting local community needs and promoting sustainable development goals in the Mediterranean area.

Urban forests (UF) provide a range of important ecosystem services (ES) for human well-being. Relevant ES delivered by UF include urban temperature regulation, runoff mitigation, noise reduction, recreation, and air purification. In this study the potential of air pollution removal by UF in the city of Florence (Italy) was investigated. Two main air pollutants were considered – particulate matter (PM10) and tropospheric ozone (O3) – with the aim of providing a methodological framework for mapping air pollutant removal by UF and assessing the percent removal of air pollutant. The distribution of UF was mapped by high spatial resolution remote sensing data and classified into seven forest categories. The Leaf Area Index (LAI) was estimated spatially using a regression model between in-field LAI survey and Airborne Laser Scanning data and it was found to be in good linear agreement with estimates from ground-based measurements (R2 = 0.88 and RMSE% = 11%). We applied pollution deposition equations by using pollution concentrations measured at urban monitoring stations and then estimated the pollutant removal potential of the UF: annual O3 and PM10 removal accounted for 77.9 t and 171.3 t, respectively. O3 and PM10 removal rates by evergreen broadleaves (16.1 and 27.3 g/m2), conifers (10.9 and 28.5 g/m2), and mixed evergreen species (15.8 and 31.7 g/m2) were higher than by deciduous broadleaf stands (4.1 and 10 g/m2). However, deciduous forests exhibited the largest total removal due to the high percentage of tree cover within the city. The present study confirms that UF play an important role in air purification in Mediterranean cities as they can remove monthly up to 5% of O3 and 13% of PM10.

Dead wood and stand structural parameters were sampled in eleven countries using standardized methods at about 90 intensive forest monitoring sites across large parts of Europe. Besides descriptions and correlation analyses of dead wood and stand structure parameters, a joint evaluation of both fields was performed by principal component analysis (PCA). The extracted principal components were subsequently regressed against important numerical and categorical site-related parameters like soil pH, altitude, or forest type. Dead wood volumes varied largely across plots, however, 77 percent of them had volumes below 25 cubic meter per hectare. While all fractions of dead wood - except cut stumps - reveal high intercorrelation, different aspects of stand structure varied more independently. Clark-Evans index, number of tree species and standard deviation of tree trunk diameters revealed as most self-contained. The 1st PCA axis covered 46 percent of the total variance and was mostly loaded by total dead wood volume denoting it as the feature differentiating forests most. The 2nd axis was primarily loaded by tree species diversity together with stem density and the Clark-Evans index. On the 3rd axis diameter differentiation of trees together with the volume of cut stumps prevailed, while the 4th was mainly related to the decay class of woody debris. Bivariate ex post analyses revealed country as a significant predictor of all PCA axes, underlining national forest legislations and management rules as crucial for all investigated structural features of forests. Forest type was related only to the 3rd and 2nd axis. Only the 3rd axis revealed significant relationships with some ecological site factors (age, number of tree layers, latitude, altitude). The outcome underlines the significance of nationally enacted forest legislations for both important structural and biodiversity-relevant features of forest ecosystems and encourages similar approaches with data from national forest inventories or monitoring systems.

The most well-known and vast Calabrian pine forests are in the Sila mountain range, southern Italy. In this paper, present-day distribution of Calabrian pine in the Sila district was analyzed and compared with forest maps dating back to 1935 in order to assess the changes in land use. Main ecological and anthropogenic factors affecting Calabrian pine forest distribution were investigated by logistic regression models to identify the most important predictors of Calabrian pine persistence, expansion, and transition over the period 1935-2006. In 2006, the area covered by Calabrian pine forests and mixed Calabrian pine-beech forests was 36 100 ha and 20 221 ha, respectively. Overall, pine forest area increased by 38% between 1935 and 2006. Logistic regression revealed that Calabrian pine distribution in the Sila district was affected by both ecological (bioclimate, soil, and elevation) and anthropogenic factors (management, fire). Based on our results, four different potential dynamics of Calabrian pine stands are discussed in the perspective of the sustainable management and conservation of this important mountain forest habitat.

In this work we studied the pollen flow of a selected range of crops which could be genetically transformed in the near future. The study is part of LIFE08 NAT/IT/342 DEMETRA project which aims at developing a quick monitoring index to rapidly assess the influence on ecosystems of transgenic crops. To do this three experimental plots were selected in the Migliarino - San Rossore - Massaciuccoli Regional Park (Tuscany, Italy). The plots were characterized by different cropped areas: maize, sunflower, oilseed rape, Italian stone pine, and poplar. Pollen traps were installed within the plots taking into account the distance from crops and wind direction. A pollen dispersal simulation model was used to assess the potential contamination levels due to maize crops. Our results show that maize pollen covered up to a distance of 160 m from the cultivated area; pollen granules of oilseed rape, sunflower, pine and poplar were detected up to a distance of 34 m, 19 m, 269 m and 380 m, respectively. The pollen dispersal simulation model provided spatial explicit estimations of the contamination levels in term of maize pollen granules concentration.

In 2008 the Community program LIFE + gave the opportunity to present projects to develop and deepen the theme of the environmental risk assessment of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs), through the development of specific environmental monitoring systems. At that time Italy was outlining a legislative framework which suggested the need to define the rules of coexistence to fulfil its obligations under Community law and comply with the national legislation in force (Law n.5/2005). In this regulatory framework, the Tuscany Region promoted the idea of developing a LIFE + project on the theme of GMOs monitoring, to try to fill the gap related to the lack of standardized tools to carry out environmental monitoring of GMOs and, at the same time, respond to the need to protect its territory from risks determined by transgenic crops. The DEMETRA (DEvelopment of a quick Monitoring index as a tool to assess Environmental impacts of TRAnsgenic crops) project contributes to building a shared basis at Community level for the monitoring of GMOs into the environment, whether they are directly cultivated for commercial purposes, whether they are used in a given place for research purposes. The main objective of the Project was the creation of an innovative instrument to rapidly address monitoring efforts that Public Bodies should implement in their territories when transgenic crops are cropped. Particularly on when, where and how the data collection should be switched on. Where, when and how to address the efforts of Public Authorities in the General Surveillance for the monitoring of possible collateral effects of Genetically Modified Plants (GMPs) is the main objective of this project. An objective that is particularly relevant for those public bodies who have to manage directly those issues related with the commercial cropping of GMPs (as in the case of Italian Regions). The DEMETRA project aims particularly at addressing the latter bullet point, with the creation of a quick monitoring index (QMI) to rapidly assess the potential risk generated by a selected range of transgenic crops in well determined ecosystems or biotopes. The index will take into account: the level of risk posed by a range of transgenic crops potentially used in the study areas and the potential interactions of these GMPs with some relevant biological, physical and climatic parameters that will be collected and studied in some sites of the study areas. The index has been equipped with a Geographic Information System (GIS) which, provided with geographic data, will be useful to monitor and map the level of risk generated by transgenic plants in a determined area, either these GMPs are really cropped or that their presence is only simulated. The QMI and GIS platform provided with necessary data, can be used as a tool to map the level of environmental risk posed by transgenic crops to specific ecosystems. Moreover, the project enlists guidelines to correctly choose the elements to be considered during the setting up of a monitoring system. In addition, this project has given the possibility to generate a starting point for biodiversity in areas where transgenic crops have never been used. The resulting data-sets, reported in the chapters of this book, can be used when transgenic crops enter in common use, allowing a comparison among observed parameters linked to biodiversity. The system has been studied to be really transferable in other situation, but it will work effectively only where a wide range of environmental information is already collected, stored and easy available for Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA) and GIS applications.

An old-growth beech forest stand with silver fir within the strict forest reserve of Sasso Fratino has been examined with the following aims: to characterize forest stand on the basis of classic forest parameters and to assess forest stand structure by means of spatial functions; to provide genetic dating of the beech population. Total census of size and position of living trees and deadwood was performed on a 9200 m2 permanent plot. Vertical distribution of crowns in the stand was assessed using the TSTRAT function, horizontal stand structure using spatial point pattern analysis. Genetic dating was performed on a sample of beech trees. DNA was isolated and each individual was genotyped at four chloroplast microsatellite loci. Microsatellite profiles were compared with the profiles of control DNA of known haplotypes. Results show a multi-strata vertical structure, a horizontal structure characterized by small gaps (5160 m2) where silver fir regeneration sets in. Deadwood is present with all the decay classes and with relatively high volumes. Genetic dating ascribes the Sasso Fratino beech stand to the ancestral haplotype 2: this population can therefore be considered a hot spot of haplotype diversity of the glacial refugia present in central Italy.

Environmental risk assessment (ERA) and ecosystem monitoring associated with genetically modified (GM) organisms is a topic of broad interest. In Europe, the Directive 2001/18/EC foresees a case-by-case assessment of the risks on the bases of the step-by-step approach. Nevertheless, researches are still needed to implement the EU Directive within a standardized methodological reference framework. The aim of this work was the development of a method to assess the environmental risk generated by four transgenic plants: maize, sunflower, oilseed rape, and poplar. To this end, the effects of GM plants on target/non target species, biodiversity, gene flow, and the evolution of resistance were considered. The proposed method integrates the quantitative approach developed by de Jesus et al. (2006) with the guidelines on ERA provided by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA, 2010). The potential hazards caused by selected GM plants in the following areas of concern were identified: persistence and invasiveness of GM plants, interaction of GM plants with microorganisms, interaction of GM plants with target and non target organisms. A index of risk and a index of significance were computed for each potential hazard using data from literature. The indexes were combined using a matrix in order to assess the risk for the environment and the measures required to prevent adverse effects of GM plants. The study has been performed within the framework of the European project LIFE08 NAT/IT/342.

The influence of forest management on stand structure and genetic diversity was studied in a European beech ( Fagus sylvatica L.) forest in the Gran Sasso – Laga National Park, Apennine Mountains, central Italy. Field work was carried out in two plots to compare both spatial structure and genetic variability between an old-growth beech stand and a post-harvest naturally regenerated stand. The study was based on a total census of living trees within the plots. Vertical and horizontal stand structures were analyzed by means of spatial functions. Individuals were genotyped with four highly polymorphic nuclear microsatellite loci (nSSRs) and with RAPD markers. Population spatial genetic structure was inferred using a Bayesian Monte Carlo Markov Chains method implemented in the Geneland software. The major structural differences distinguishing the old-growth stand from the managed stand were tree size differentiation, vertical crown distribution and horizontal stem distribution. Concerning genetic features, the managed stand presented no significant differences from the unmanaged stand. Nevertheless, the old growth forest had a higher spatial structuring of genetic diversity than did the managed stand. Molecular markers (nSSR alleles and RAPD fragments) detected in the unmanaged stand were rarely detected in the managed stand, and rare markers were lost.

This work is part of LIFE08 NAT/IT/342 DEMETRA project with the aim of developing a Quick Monitoring Index (QMI) to rapidly assess the potential risk generated by a selected range of transgenic crops in well determined ecosystems or biotopes. Therefore, it is important to define pollen dispersal of some species (crops and trees) which could potentially be converted in transgenic in the near future, and cropped (or potentially cropped) in proximity of protected ecosystems. The species included in the project are maize, sunflower, canola and poplar cultivated in selected areas in the Migliarino - San Rossore - Massaciuccoli Regional Park (Tuscany, Italy). Some pollen traps were installed taking into account the distance from cropped area and the dominant wind during the period of pollen dispersal. The information achieved is needed in order to collect data concerning the possible distance covered by transgenic pollen that potentially could impact biodiversity and target species. This will be also necessary to individuate potential periods and conditions that increase the risk of pollen dispersal.

This paper aims to provide general considerations, in the form of a scientific review, with reference to selected experiences of ALS applications under alpine, temperate and Mediterranean environments in Italy as case studies. In Italy, the use of ALS data have been mainly focused on the stratification of forest stands and the estimation of their timber volume and biomass at local scale. Potential for ALS data exploitation concerns their integration in forest inventories on large territories, their usage for silvicultural systems detection and their use for the estimation of fuel load in forest and pre-forest stands. Multitemporal ALS may even be suitable to support the assessment of current annual volume increment and the harvesting rates.

The objectives of this work were the characterization of the spatial genetic diversity in poplar populations at the stand level, and the study of the potential breeding between natural and cultivated populations in Mediterranean environment. To this end, two test areas were selected in the Migliarino-San Rossore-Massaciuccoli Regional Park in Tuscany (Italy): A) a mixed forest stand; B) a scattered Populus population in the wetland area of "lake of Massaciuccoli". Test area A is a naturally-originated mixed forest stand near to poplar plantations. In the forest, the prevailing tree species are Populus alba and P. x canescens. In the test area B, single and clustered trees of Populus spp. are scattered along the lake, and close to poplar plantations. In the test area A an experimental plot 2500 m2 large has been designed inside the forest. All Populus trees within the two test area have been identified and their position have been collected by GPS. The analysis of spatial and genetic structure of the two poplar stands was performed using Geneland. Nuclear microsatellites were used to evaluate genetic diversity of poplar populations and level of breeding between natural and cultivated Populus. The results of Geneland clearly showed that four distinct clusters can be identified in the area A, indicating the presence of gene flow barriers. The same analysis indicates two clusters in area B with a gene flow between clusters higher than in area A. In test area A, we found hybridization between the poplar stand and the Populus plantation. Therefore, the possible cultivation of transgenic poplar close to naturally originated stands might influence their biodiversity. The study has been performed within the framework of the European project LIFE08 NAT/IT/342.

In the last decades researchers investigated the possibility of extending the information collected in sampling units during a field survey to wider geographical areas through the use of remotely sensed images. One of the most widely adopted approaches is based on the non-parametric k-Nearest Neighbors (k-NN) algorithm. This contribution describes the software K-NN FOREST we developed to provide a complete tool for the implementation of the k-NN technique to generate spatially explicit estimations (maps) of a response variable acquired in the field by sampling units through the use of remotely sensed data or other ancillary variables. K-NN FOREST is designed to guide the user through a graphic user interface in the different phases of the process. K-NN FOREST is freely available for download and it is designed to run under Windows environment in conjunction with the GIS software IDRISI.

The project LIFE+ DEMETRA (DEvelopment of a quick Monitoring index as a tool to assess Environmental impacts of TRAnsgenic crops) arises from the need to analyze standardised numerical data within an informative system in supporting Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) monitoring. In particular, the project is aimed to the creation of a Quick Monitoring Index (QMI) to rapidly assess the potential risk generated by a selected range of transgenic crops in well determined ecosystems. The study area is the San Rossore - Migliarino - Massaciuccoli Regional Park, characterized mainly by wetlands, lowland forests, natural poplar groves and pine forests. For carrying out the experimental field activities, four test areas have been selected within the boundaries of the Regional Park, also taking into account their proximity to cropped (or potentially cropped) surfaces in which Genetically Modified (GM) crops could be used. Different environments have been selected: a) fields adjacent to natural mixed forests; b) abandoned fields; c) wet meadows; d) natural poplar groves. Some marked varieties (GMO free have been used, due both to Italian low restriction and to the sensitive environments selected) have been dislocated in arable surfaces closed to the selected test areas. Some native plants able to hybridize with the selected crops have been genotyped with nuclear molecular markers to evaluate possible hybridization. Analyses are carried out to assess a) local ecosystem biodiversity in relation to the target crops species; b) the interactions among the three levels in trophic chains; c) definition of potential relationships between transgene-environment-plant-animal-food chain in the study plots; d) individuation of species sensitive to GM crops; and e) definition of diversity indexes to monitor biodiversity changes related to crops which could potentially be converted in transgenics. The monitoring of the plant biodiversity in the four test sites should proceed for progressive levels of investigation. In order to better define species density and composition, some sampling plots have been chosen within each of the four selected sites. For evaluating plant biodiversity we used the standardised multi-scale approach proposed by Dengler (2009). For each of the study areas we applied the scheme of Dengler, placing a variable number of permanent plots, based on the extension of the area. The plots are used for both floristic census and for the analysis of plant communities. The floristic census has been carried out with periodical inspection and phenological data have been recorded, for each plant species in each plot. In order to define possible variations of distribution and/or density of plant species, their relative abundance within their environments are evaluated. To do this, an analysis of the plant communities within plot boundaries has been assessed, according to the Braun Blanquet (1964) approach. At present, a list of wild plant species have been selected, to evaluate possible hybridization with crop species.

The Forest Biodiversity Test phase Assessments (ForestBIOTA) project was carried out on 97 intensive monitoring plots located in 12 European countries. It aimed at the development and test implementation of monitoring methods for forest biodiversity across Europe. More specifically it covered the fields of (i) stand structure, (ii) forest deadwood, (iii) ground vegetation and (iv) epiphytic lichens. A forest type classification was applied in addition. The project took into account policy requirements stated by a number of political processes and institutions including the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Ministerial Conference for the Protection of Forests in Europe, the Environment for Europe Ministerial Conference and the European Union. Whereas detailed results of the assessments are presented in additional publications (Stofer et al. 2007, in prep, Meyer et al. 2007, submitted), this paper draws a number of general conclusions and gives recommendations for future development of forest biodiversity monitoring in Europe.

Deadwood is a key ecological factor in forest ecosystems. Its occurrence is fundamental since it represents a microhabitat for hundreds of species of invertebrates, fungi, bryophytes, lichens, amphibians, small mammals and birds. In recent years, deadwood has been recognized as a relevant indicator for the assessment and monitoring of forest biodiversity. In this paper the methodology for surveying woody necromass proposed by the ForestBIOTA project under Regulation (EC) No 2152/ 2003 (Forest Focus) is described. The amount of deadwood found on 91 Intensive Monitoring Level II plot of the EU and ICP Forest condition monitoring programme range from 0 to 258 m3 ha71. In the examined areas, total deadwood volume does not differ significantly among forest types, due to the high intra-type variability. On the other hand, its distribution between coarse and fine necromass and among necromass components is highly dependent on forest types. L'articolo è disponibile sul sito dell'editore www.tandf.co.uk/journals/

Converting coppices into high forests with continuous cover has often been established during the last decades as a management goal in hilly and mountainous Mediterranean areas to attenuate the negative effects that frequent clearcutting may have on soil, landscape and biodiversity conservation. The silvicultural tool usually adopted for this purpose is the gradual thinning of sprouts during the long span of time required to complete the conversion, that also allows the owner to keep harvesting some wood. This research compared the effects of various thinning intensities (three treatments plus control) on the stand growth and structure of a beech coppice with standards. The optimal density after thinning was assessed by expressing mean tree spacing as a function of main stand attributes like stand height and stand dbh. This system was preferred to the empirical evaluation of the percentage of basal area to be removed in order to give forest managers general reference guidelines to adapt to the varying environments of the Mediterranean mountains. Results confirmed that the positive effects of thinning on mean stem volume is due more to the higher diameter increment than to different height growth. The acceleration of crown growth in the thinned plots allowed canopy closure to be achieved 13 years after thinning. This reduced the negative effects of the opening of the stand overlayer and the elimination of most suppressed trees on soil protection. Under the conditions examined, the best thinning intensity proved to be a stand density 20% lower than normal prescribed by the yield tables elaborated for beech high forests in Central and Southern Italy.

We investigated the potential performance of air pollution removal by the green infrastructures and urban forests in the city of Florence, central Italy, with a focus on the two most detrimental pollutants for human health: particulate (PM 10 ) and ozone (O 3 ). The spatial distribution of green infrastructures was mapped using remote sensing data. A spatial modeling approach using vegetation indices, Leaf Area Index, and local pollution concentration data was applied to estimate PM 10 and O 3 removal. The results are discussed to highlight the role and potential of green infrastructures and urban forests in improving air quality in Southern European cities.