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In Sweden, the prevalence of Trichinella infection in domestic pigs has greatly decreased since the 1970s, with no reports in the past 4 years. However, infected wild animals continue to be found. The objective of the present study was to identify the species of Trichinella present in animals of Sweden, so as to contribute to the knowledge on the distribution area and hosts useful for the prevention and control of this zoonosis. In the period 1985–2003, Trichinella larvae were detected in the muscles of 81/1800 (4.5%) red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), 1/6 (16.7%) arctic fox (Alopex lagopus), 1/7 (14.3%) wolf (Canis lupus), 10/200 (5.0%) lynxes (Lynx lynx), 4/8000 (0.05%) wild boars (Sus scrofa), and 27/66 × 106 (0.000041%) domestic pigs. All four Trichinella species previously found in Europe were detected (Trichinella spiralis, T. nativa, T. britovi and T. pseudospiralis). The non-encapsulated species T. pseudospiralis was detected in three wild boars from Hölö (Stockholm area) and in one lynx from Frösö (Östersund area), suggesting that this species is widespread in Sweden. These findings are consistent with those of a study from Finland, both for the unexpected presence of T. pseudospiralis infection and the presence of the same four Trichinella species, suggesting that this epidemiological situation is present in the entire Scandinavian region. The widespread diffusion of T. pseudospiralis in the Scandinavian region is also important in terms of it potential impact on public health, given that human infection can occur and the difficulties to detect it by the trichinelloscopic examination. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Objective: To investigate diagnostic methods, surgical methods and indications, early complications and short term outcome of cervical spine surgery for rheumatoid arthritis (RA).Methods: A nation-wide registration of rheumatoid cervical spine surgery carried out in Sweden during 1993.Results: Eighty-six (74 primary) procedures in 83 patients were reported from 11 hospitals. Pain was a more common indication for surgery than was neurologic impairment. C1-C2 instability or subluxation was present in 66/82, subaxial subluxations in 27/82 and atlantoaxial impaction in 10/82 procedures (data partly missing in one case). Indications for surgery and preoperative investigations were found to be reasonably uniform, but surgical methods and post-operative care varied between hospitals. Posterior fusion was performed in 76 patients. C1-C2 wiring with bone grafting was the most common procedure followed by occipito-cervical fusion with wires and bone cement. Subaxial cervical decompression without fusion, posterior fusion with onlay graft only, and carbon fiber grafts were used in a small number of patients. Total mortality was 5/83. The early complication rate was low, but 17 patients showed recurrent subluxation at follow-up at median 7 (1-17) months. Seven of them required reoperation in the same segment.Conclusion: The variation in treatment policy and number of operated patients in the different hospitals speak in favor for centralization of cervical spine surgery in RA. New methods for C1-C2-fusion need to be evaluated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nine Norwegian Red Cattle, 9-12 months old, were inoculated simultaneously with Ehrlichia (Cytoecetes) phagocytophila and Babesia divergens. Ten cattle of the same breed and age were kept as controls. Clinical evaluation was done on a daily basis and rectal temperatures were recorded every morning for 4 weeks post inoculation. Blood and serum samples were collected regularly during the observation period. Sera were examined for the presence of antibodies to E. phagocytophila and B. divergens by an indirect immunofluorescence antibody test. All infected animals showed two periods of fever that corresponded to the proliferation of B. divergens and E. phagocytophila in the peripheral blood. The simultaneous infection did not induce more severe clinical symptoms than infection with either organism alone. Compared with the control group, there was a 25% decrease in the mean haematocrit. The leukogram showed a biphasic pattern and corresponded to the changes seen in infection with either organism alone. The simultaneous infection did not suppress antibody formation towards E. phagocytophila or B. divergens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bovine eimeriosis is a common, globally distributed infection in housed calves aged from 3 to 12weeks. To date, no national prevalence study revealing the occurrence and distribution of Eimeria species under Swedish environmental and farming conditions has been performed. This study revealed the excretion of Eimeria bovis or Eimeria zuernii (alone or together) in 23% of all sampled calves (N=541) and 61% of all herds (N=99). The number of tested calves was critical for whether positive calves were detected or not. Nine other Eimeria species were identified, the most frequently reported being Eimeria ellipsoidalis (9% and 35% of positive calves and herds, respectively) and Eimeria auburnensis (4% and 19% of positive calves and herds, respectively). Not all calves shedding oocysts had diarrhoea and not all diarrhoeic calves shedded oocysts. Based on these present findings, Swedish cattle practitioners should include bovine eimeriosis as a relevant differential diagnosis to other common gastrointestinal pathogens in 3 to 12weeks old calves with diarrhoea or unthrifty calves without diarrhoea. When testing a herd for bovine eimeriosis, a sufficient number of faecal samples, i.e. 10 or more samples, should be examined to obtain a reliable picture of the infection status in a given farm., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

To investigate if the Swedish entry rules for pets to prevent the introduction of Echinococcus multilocularis (EM) are proportional (i.e. that their costs do not exceed the value of their benefits), a dichotomous-choice contingent valuation study was conducted. The study was performed before the first case of EM was detected in Sweden in February 2011. About 5000, randomly selected, Swedish citizens were invited to participate and 2192 of them (44%) accepted to do so. Missing information on whether or not one would accept to pay for keeping the rules for 143 respondents resulted in 2049 observations (41%) available for the estimation of willingness to pay (WTP), and missing information on personal characteristics for another 274 respondents reduced the number of observations available for sensitivity analysis to 1775 (36%). Annual expected WTP for keeping the rules ranged between € 54.3 and € 99.0 depending on assumptions about compensations demanded by respondents not willing to pay. The estimates are conservative since only answers from respondents that were absolutely certain they would pay the suggested bid were regarded as yes-responses. That WTP is positive implies that Swedish citizens perceived the benefits of the rules to be larger than their costs., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Echinococcus multilocularis is a parasite that can cause alveolar echinococcosis disease. After the first positive finding of E. multilocularis in Sweden in 2011, a consulting group with representatives from relevant authorities was summoned. In this group, all relevant information was shared, strategies for information dissemination and any actions to be taken due to the finding of E. multilocularis were discussed and decided. The present paper describes the actions taken during 2011 and the results thereof, including surveillance in animals, risk assessment for humans to become infected and recommendations given to the public. Further discussion about whether the parasite was introduced, and if so, how, as well as possible future development of the infection in animals and humans in Sweden and future actions are included.

Surveillance for the fox tapeworm, Echinococcus multilocularis, has been carried out in Sweden since 2000, with about 300 red foxes analysed annually. We report the first finding of E. multilocularis in Sweden, in a fox shot in December 2010 in the south-west of the country. A second infected fox shot in the same location was detected in March 2011. This paper describes the national monitoring programme and the ongoing work to estimate the prevalence and spread of the infection.

Background: The fox tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis has foxes and other canids as definitive host and rodents as intermediate hosts. However, most mammals can be accidental intermediate hosts and the larval stage may cause serious disease in humans. The parasite has never been detected in Sweden, Finland and mainland Norway. All three countries require currently an anthelminthic treatment for dogs and cats prior to entry in order to prevent introduction of the parasite. Documentation of freedom from E. multilocularis is necessary for justification of the present import requirements., Methods: The probability that Sweden, Finland and mainland Norway were free from E. multilocularis and the sensitivity of the surveillance systems were estimated using scenario trees. Surveillance data from five animal species were included in the study: red fox (Vulpes vulpes), raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides), domestic pig, wild boar (Sus scrofa) and voles and lemmings (Arvicolinae)., Results: The cumulative probability of freedom from EM in December 2009 was high in all three countries, 0.98 (95% CI 0.96-0.99) in Finland and 0.99 (0.97-0.995) in Sweden and 0.98 (0.95-0.99) in Norway., Conclusions: Results from the model confirm that there is a high probability that in 2009 the countries were free from E. multilocularis. The sensitivity analyses showed that the choice of the design prevalences in different infected populations was influential. Therefore more knowledge on expected prevalences for E. multilocularis in infected populations of different species is desirable to reduce residual uncertainty of the results.

The present study was undertaken to investigate the prevalence of ascarid infections in Swedish commercial laying hens in 2004 and 2008 following a recent nationwide change to alternative housing systems but before anthelmintics became available. Also, the influence on prevalence of farm and flock characteristics and management was studied in 2004. The results showed that the overall prevalence was significantly higher in 2008 (38%; n = 64/169) compared with 2004 (24%; n = 44/186) (P = 0.001). Ascarid infections were rare in caged flocks, including furnished (enriched) cages, both years (2.4 to 4.3%), and were significantly more common in non-cage systems in both years (16.7 to 48.6% in 2004, and 28.6 to 77.1% in 2008 depending on the housing system). There was no significant difference in prevalence between hens kept on litter indoors and free-range/organic hens. The absence of a hygiene barrier at the entrance of the house or unit increased the risk of infection (P < 0.001), which suggests that parasite eggs were introduced horizontally to the farms. The risk of infection also increased with the age of equipment used in the barn; for example, the risk increased with an odds ratio of 7.5 (95% confidence interval = 2.3 to 25) when comparing equipment 1 year old with equipment ≥7 years old. The results of this study show that ascarid infections may re-emerge following a change to alternative housing. With the impending ban on conventional battery cages in the member states of the European Union, ascarid infections are likely to increase in importance and efficient control options such as hygiene barriers should be implemented on all farms.

Background: The incidence of bovine babesiosis, caused by Babesia divergens (Apicomplexa: Piroplasmida) has decreased markedly since the 1930 s, but may re-emerge as a consequence of climate change and changes in legislation and pasturing practices. This is a potentially serious disease, with both economical and animal welfare consequences. Therefore, there is a need to survey the distribution of B. divergens., Methods: We tested sera from 306 healthy pastured cows from 24 farms along the southern Norwegian coast by using an indirect immunofluorescence IgG antibody test (IFAT). Fractions of seropositive cows were compared by calculating 95% CI., Results: The results of this test showed that 27% of the sera were positive for B. divergens antibodies. The fraction of antibody-positive sera that we detected showed a two-humped distribution, with a high fraction of positives being found in municipalities in the western and eastern parts of the study area, while the municipalities between these areas had few or no positive serum samples., Conclusions: Neither the farmers' observations nor the Norwegian Dairy Herd Recording System give an adequate picture of the distribution of bovine babesiosis. Serological testing of cows by using IFAT is a convenient way of screening for the presence of B. divergens in an area.

Background: In the last few years stud farms have experienced increasing problems with Parascaris equorum infections in foals despite intensive deworming programs. This has led to the question as to whether the anthelmintic drugs used against this parasite are failing. This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of ivermectin, fenbendazole and pyrantel on the faecal output of ascarid eggs of foals., Methods: A Faecal Egg Count Reduction Test (FECRT) was performed on nine large studs in Sweden. Anthelmintic drugs were given orally and faecal samples were examined for ascarid eggs on the day of deworming and 14 days later. Faecal Egg Count Reductions (FECRs) were calculated on arithmetic means of transformed individual FECRs and on arithmetic means of individual FECRs., Results: Seventy-nine (48%) out of a total of 165 foals sampled were positive for P. equorum eggs before deworming and 66 of these met the criteria for being used in the efficacy assessment. It was shown that there was no, or very low activity of ivermectin on the output of ascarid eggs in the majority of the foals, whereas for fenbendazole and pyrantel it was >90%., Conclusion: Ivermectin resistance was shown in 5 out of 6 farms. Therefore, ivermectin should not be the drug of choice in the control of P. equorum infections in foals. According to the results of this study, fenbendazole or pyrantel are still effective and should be used against this parasite.

A clinical study was performed in 21 dogs to evaluate the efficacy of selamectin for the treatment of naturally acquired infection of sucking lice (Linognathus setosus [L.setosus]) in dogs. Each dog was randomly assigned to one of two treatment groups. One group was treated with selamectin applied topically at a mean dosage of 7.9 mg/kg. The other group was treated with permethrin applied topically at a mean dosage of 85.7 mg/kg. At day 42 posttreatment, all animals remaining in the study (10 treated with selamectin and six with permethrin) were clear of lice. In both groups, the reduction in lice counts from pretreatment values to day 42 was statistically significant at P< or =0.0001. Selamectin applied topically appeared to be effective against L. setosus infection in dogs.

In a laboratory study to evaluate the efficacy of selamectin for treatment of canine nasal mite infection, 12 purpose-bred beagles were experimentally infected with Pneumonyssoides caninum (P. caninum). Six of the dogs were treated with selamectin applied to the skin of the back at dosages of 6 to 24 mg/kg for three times at 2-week intervals. The remaining six dogs were an untreated control group. At necropsy 39 to 46 days after inoculation, no P. caninum mites were found in any of the treated dogs. In contrast, nasal mites were found in five of the untreated dogs. This difference was statistically significant at P=0.015.

Libyostrongylus douglassii, a pathogenic trichostrongylid nematode of the ostrich, was recently identified as a potentially important parasite in ostriches on Swedish farms. This parasite is well adapted to the hot and dry climates of sub-Saharan Africa, the natural habitat of the ostrich. The influence of low temperatures in colder climates, such as in Sweden, on free-living stages of L. douglassii is however insufficiently known. In this study, parasite free ostrich faeces were mixed with infective L(3)-stage larvae of L. douglassii, which had been cultured from eggs obtained from two Swedish farms. Samples of the mixture were placed on a grass surface, and analyses for L(3)-stage larvae were performed at regular intervals. The results of the study showed that L(3)-stage larvae may remain alive during a period of at least 97 days on pasture during the winter season in Sweden, even when the temperature within the samples was repeatedly below -0.1 degrees C, and the air temperature varied between -19.6 and +14.9 degrees C. It was concluded that L(3)-stage larvae of L. douglassii probably have the ability to remain viable on pastures during winter in Sweden.

A prospective study of 474 dogs, 145 cats, and 66 wild red foxes submitted for necropsy to the Departments of Pathology at the National Veterinary Institute and the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden, was conducted to examine for the presence of Pneumonyssoides caninum, the canine nasal mite. Pneumonyssoides caninum (P. caninum) was found in 95 (20%) of the dogs but in none of the cats or foxes. The median number of P. caninum mites per infected dog was 13 (range, 1 to 250). Dogs older than 3 years of age were more often infected with P. caninum than younger dogs, and large-breed dogs were more often infected than small-breed dogs. No sex predisposition was found.

Object: The authors performed a prospective study to determine whether cervical laminectomy without simultaneous fusion results in spinal instability., Methods: Because of clinical and radiographic signs of cord compression, 15 patients with rheumatoid arthritis (including one with Bechterew's disease) and severe involvement of the cervical spine underwent decompressive laminectomy without fusion performed on one or more levels. Preoperative flexion-extension radiographs demonstrated dislocation but no signs of instability at the level of cord compression. Clinical and radiological reexamination were performed twice at a median of 15 months (6-24 months) and 43 months (28-72 months) postoperatively. One patient developed severe vertical translocation 28 months after undergoing a C-1 laminectomy, which led to sudden tetraplegia. She required reoperation in which posterior fusion was performed. No signs of additional instability at the operated levels were found in the remaining 14 patients. In three patients increased but stable dislocation was demonstrated. The results of clinical examination were favorable in most patients, with improvement of neurological symptoms and less pain., Conclusions: The authors conclude that decompressive laminectomy in which the facet joints are preserved can be performed in the rheumatoid arthritis-affected cervical spine in selected patients in whom signs of cord compression are demonstrated, but in whom radiographic and preoperative signs of instability are not. Performing a simultaneous fusion procedure does not always appear necessary. Vertical translocation must be detected early, and if present, a C-1 laminectomy should be followed by occipitocervical fusion.

Total DNA was isolated from adult lungworms of the genus Dictyocaulus, collected from cattle, moose (Alces alces) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in Sweden. The second ribosomal internal transcribed spacer was amplified with PCR, and DNA sequences were determined from nine individual worms that all came from different hosts in order to avoid analysis of siblings. The sequence data obtained were aligned and compared with similar data derived from German lungworm isolates from cattle and fallow deer (Cervus dama). These analyses clearly showed that specimens of the cattle lungworm, Dictyocaulus viviparus, were almost identical irrespective of their geographical origin. However, when the second internal transcribed spacer sequence of D. viviparus was compared with that of lungworms from moose and roe deer, major differences were noticed. Although lungworms collected from these cervids had identical second internal transcribed spacer sequences, they proved to be genetically different from Dictyocaulus eckerti of German fallow deer, displaying a 66.5% similarity. In an evolutionary tree, inferred by maximum likelihood analysis, the Dictyocaulus species from cattle and wild cervids clustered as compared with Dictyocaulus filaria from sheep. The study has thus demonstrated that A. alces and C. capreolus in Sweden are parasitised with a Dictyocaulus species that is different from D. viviparus and D. eckerti, indicating that we are dealing with a new species in moose and roe deer.

A multicentric clinical trial was done to evaluate the clinical efficacy of milbemycin oxime in the treatment of nasal mite (Pneumonyssoides caninum) infection in dogs. Milbemycin oxime was given to 70 dogs of different breeds, genders, and ages, with clinical signs associated with nasal mite infection. Twenty-five dogs had a verified infection, and 45 dogs had signs suggestive of nasal mite infection. Milbemycin oxime was given at the dosage of 0.5 to 1.0 mg/kg body weight orally once a week for three consecutive weeks. One month after initiation of treatment, 68 of the dogs had no more clinical signs associated with nasal mite infection.

A successful experimental transmission of the canine nasal mite, Pneumonyssoides caninum, is described. Some 11 weeks after repeated systemic ivermectin treatment, four Beagles were inoculated via the right nostril with 20 P. caninum mites of different sexes and life stages, obtained at the necropsy of an infected dog. The inoculated dogs and a matching uninoculated control were observed for clinical signs for 14 weeks and then euthanised. Vague upper respiratory signs and a transient minor increase in the number of eosinophils in peripheral blood were recorded in the inoculated dogs. At necropsy 4-12 P. caninum mites were found in the nasal cavities and sinuses of the inoculated dogs, but none in the control. In three out of the four infected dogs mites were found in both the right and left nasal cavities and sinuses of the skull. Since in no case more mites than the number used for inoculation were detected it is not clear if the mites managed to reproduce in the dogs. Inflammatory lesions were seen most consistently in the olfactory mucosa, respiratory mucosa and tonsils, and growth of opportunistic bacteria was observed in the tonsils of the infected dogs. The inflammatory lesions seen in the olfactory mucosa may explain why dogs infected with P. caninum sometimes appear to suffer from impaired scenting ability.

Nine Norwegian Red cattle, aged 7-14 months, persistently infected with bovine virus diarrhoea virus (BVDV) were inoculated with a Swedish strain of Babesia divergens. Six persistently infected cattle of the same age and breed were kept as controls. Blood and serum samples were collected regularly during the observation period. Rectal temperatures were recorded every morning for 25 days post infection, and the animals were examined clinically on a daily basis. Sera were examined for antibodies to B. divergens by indirect immunofluorescence antibody test (IFAT). Eight of the infected animals developed fever of 2-5 days duration. Babesia divergens organisms appeared in the erythrocytes of all infected animals on the day after inoculation. The parasitaemia lasted for 4-11 days. One animal had a transient haemoglobinuria. Compared with the control group, there was a 20% decrease in the haematocrit. There was a transient lymphopenia and thrombocytopenia during the period of fever. There were no differences in mean numbers of neutrophils between the two persistently infected groups. Compared with cattle free of BVDV, the persistently infected cattle had consistently lower total leucocyte count that was mainly due to decreased mean numbers of neutrophils and monocytes. All infected animals develop antibodies > or = 1:1280 between day 7 and 10 post infection. The magnitude of the antibody response was considerably lower than that of BVDV-free animals inoculated with the same strain and dosage of B.divergens.

In Denmark (DK), Finland (FIN), Iceland (I), Norway (N), and Sweden (S), 516 swine herds were randomly selected in 1986-1988. Individual faecal analyses (mean: 27.9 per herd) from eight age categories of swine showed that Ascaris suum, Oesophagostomum spp., Isospora suis, and Eimeria spp. were common, while Trichuris suis and Strongyloides ransomi-like eggs occurred sporadically. Large fatteners and gilts were most frequently infected with A. suum with maximum prevalences of 25-35% in DK, N and S, 13% in I and 5% in FIN. With the exception of the remarkably low A. suum prevalence rates in FIN, no clear national differences were observed. Oesophagostomum spp. were most prevalent in adult pigs in the southern regions (21-43% in DK and southern S), less common in the northern regions (4-17% adult pigs infected), and not recorded in I. I. suis was common in piglets in DK, I, and S (20-32%), while < 1% and 5% were infected in N and FIN, respectively. Eimeria spp. had the highest prevalences in adult pigs (max. 9%) without clear geographical differences. I. suis and Eimeria spp. were recorded for the first time in I, and I. suis for the first time in N.

Nine Norwegian Red Cattle, 9-12 months old, were inoculated simultaneously with Ehrlichia (Cytoecetes) phagocytophila and Babesia divergens. Ten cattle of the same breed and age were kept as controls. Clinical evaluation was done on a daily basis and rectal temperatures were recorded every morning for 4 weeks post inoculation. Blood and serum samples were collected regularly during the observation period. Sera were examined for the presence of antibodies to E. phagocytophila and B. divergens by an indirect immunofluorescence antibody test. All infected animals showed two periods of fever that corresponded to the proliferation of B. divergens and E. phagocytophila in the peripheral blood. The simultaneous infection did not induce more severe clinical symptoms than infection with either organism alone. Compared with the control group, there was a 25% decrease in the mean haematocrit. The leukogram showed a biphasic pattern and corresponded to the changes seen in infection with either organism alone. The simultaneous infection did not suppress antibody formation towards E. phagocytophila or B. divergens.

An indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was evaluated to study the cause of the high level of background reactions which hinders the application of ELISA as a field diagnostic test for Babesia bigemina. Different blockers to improve the specificity of the ELISA were compared. THe use of soya milk (25%), gelatin (2.5%) and chicken serum (2%) did not significantly improve the specificity of the test. It was noted that the presence of fibrinogen contributed to the positive ELISA results more than the presence of B. bigemina specific antigen. This conclusion was confirmed by testing bovine fibrinogen as a host protein antigen in ELISA which strongly responded against B. bigemina positive control sera. It is suggested that application of ELISA for B. bigemina is still unreliable until a more purified Babesia-specific antigen or specific monoclonal antibodies are available.

A 34-year-old splenectomized man presented with fever, myalgia and dysuria. His condition rapidly deteriorated, he became anuric and developed severe haemolytic anaemia, thrombocytopenia and fibrinolysis. Peripheral blood smears revealed intra-erythrocytic parasites consistent with Babesia divergens in 40% of the erythrocytes. The diagnosis was confirmed by gerbil inoculation and by a significant rise in antibody titer. Blood exchange transfusion reduced the number of babesia infected erythrocytes to 1%. Parenteral therapy with a combination of quinine and clindamycin eradicated parasitaemia after 10 days of treatment and the patient rapidly improved. Renal failure necessitated haemodialysis for one month, whereafter the patient made a full recovery. Human babesiosis is a rare disease, but with a potential fatal outcome and should be considered as a diagnostic alternative in splenectomized and otherwise immunocompromised individuals with severe febrile illnesses.

The faecal egg count depression (FECD) of febantel (Rintal vet. 100 mg tablets, Bayer AG, Veterinär-Bereich, Leverkusen), against Toxocara canis was tested in suckling pups treated at 2 weeks of age. The dose rate was 30 mg kg-1 body weight given orally, once every 12 h, three times. The effect of a further treatment of 6- and 12-week-old pups on excreted eggs was also evaluated. The FECD of 6-week-old pups was 100%. However, some of the 12- and 17-week-old pups had low eggs per gram (epg) values indicating that shorter intervals between the treatments should have been used in order to minimize the risk of spreading T. canis eggs. The control pups of the first treatment group were untreated litter mates. They were treated when 4 weeks old and then followed a similar regimen to the experimental animals. At 6 weeks of age, their FECD was 100%, but low epg values were observed among 12- and 17-week-old pups, similar to the test group.

Parafilaria bovicola (Tubangui 1934), a filarial nematode, causes cutaneous bleedings of live cattle and bruise-like lesions in the subcutaneous and IM surfaces of affected carcasses. To determine the vector(s) of this nematode under Swedish conditions, a field survey was conducted during the pasture season, May-September 1980. A total of 9,931 insects were collected from cattle and subsequently examined for infective 3rd stage Parafilaria larvae. From the fly species collected. Musca autumnalis (De Geer), Hydrotaea irritans (Fall), and Haematobia stimulans (Meig) were those most frequently identified. The 3rd-stage larvae were only found in M autumnalis, face fly. Overall infection rate in these flies was 3.5%, with peak prevalence of 30% in June. Most of the nematode larvae were recovered from heads of female flies. In experiments in insect-free stables, 5 calves were experimentally inoculated with infective 3rd-stage P bovicola larvae. Two calves inoculated by the intraconjunctival route (larvae were instilled inside the eyelid) became infected, whereas 3 calves injected subcutaneously did not. Signs of infection were not seen in 4 control calves. The median development period of P bovicola from infective 3rd-stage larvae to the development of bleeding points was 43 weeks (301 days) in 26 cattle with spontaneous parafilariasis.

Two groups of calves, 1.5-2 and 7-11 months old respectively, and dairy cows were inoculated i.v. with 3 x 10(7) erythrocytes infected with Babesia divergens. High parasitaemia, fever and other clinical signs of babesiosis occurred among adult animals. A very low parasitaemia and a slightly increased body temperature but no other symptoms occurred in calves. these findings substantiate the conclusion that there exists an inverse age resistance against Babesia divergens. The kinetics of B. divergens IgG antibody formation were similar in all age groups. Consequently this antibody response was not the factor determining the development of the primary parasitaemia and thus the inverse age resistance phenomenon. However, age is not necessarily the only factor involved in the clinical expression of babesiosis. The kinetics of antibody formation was not associated with the intensity of the parasitaemia. In fact only about half the animals had a demonstrable parasitaemia although the antibody responses were similar in all age groups.

Serological survey with an IFA-test showed that 58% (73/125) of the lambs and 88% (46/52) of the ewes on the island of Gotland (Sweden) has antibodies against Babesia motasi. It is likely that such a high incidence of the blood protozoan organisms plays an important part in causing the often observed anaemia in sheep on that island.

Two of 3 red foxes became experimentally infected with Sarcoptes scabiei v. vulpes isolated from a naturally infected wild fox. The first clinical sign was seen after 10 days. After 30 days hairless patches were observed on the back of one of the foxes while general hair loss continued slowly. On the other fox the only macroscopical changes was tangling of the hair. The foxes died after 67 and 94 days, respectively. Both foxes were anaemic and in very poor condition. Scratching was seen in only 1 of the foxes.