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The processes of occupation and exploitation in the Amazon have been increasing, and as a consequence, forest areas are being replaced by agroecosystems. As a consequence of this change, changes have been occurring in the soil attributes, and consequently, in the stability of aggregates in these environments. Thus, this work had two objectives: the first was to evaluate the impacts generated by the conversion of forests into agroecosystems on the soil attributes that are related to aggregates, in the southwestern region of the Amazon; the second objective was to evaluate the roles of pedophysical and pedochemical parameters on the stability of soil aggregates. The study was carried out on rural properties located in the southern part of Amazonas State, Brazil. Eight areas under different agroecosystems were selected: in the municipality of Canutama: (i) annatto, (ii) guarana, and (iii) cupuassu; in the municipality of Humaitá: (iv) cassava, (v) agroforestry, and (vi) sugarcane; and in the municipality of Manicoré: (vii) pasture and (viii) native forest. Unformed soil samples were collected from the 0.00–0.10 m layer and analyzed for aggregate stability, bulk density, soil organic carbon, and soil organic carbon stock. Univariate, bivariate, and multivariate analyses were performed. The largest soil aggregations occurred in the annatto, guarana, sugarcane, and pasture agroecosystems. We associate the greater aggregation capacity of soils with factors that are inherent to the cultivated species and soil properties. The first factor corresponds to the adaptability of the Amazonian and grass species and their ability to produce biomass. The second factor is related to the physical and chemical properties of Amazonian soils, largely influenced by the sand fraction, soil organic carbon, soil acidity, and availability of exchangeable Ca and Mg.

In the last decades, the studies involving the mechanisms of the CO2 emissions dynamics have been studied in several ecosystems with varied soil classes. The objective of this study was to evaluate the relationship between physical and chemical attributes of soils and the variation of CO2 efflux in Indian Black Earth (IBE) and non-anthropogenic soils in the Amazon. The study areas are located in the southern region of Amazonas, specifically in the municipalities of Humaitá and Apuí. Respectively in the natural field and forest areas, grids with dimensions of 70 m x 70 m and 10 m regular spacing between sample points, in the depth of 0.0–0.20 m, totaling 64 samples were delimited. In the IBE area, a 42 x 88 m grid was established, marking points at a 6 x 8 m spacing, totalizing 88 sampling points in the depth of 0.0–0.2 m. The soil physical analyzes performed were bulk density, soil penetration resistance, macroporosity, microporosity, total porosity and texture, and the soil chemical analyzes were composed by organic carbon, organic matter and carbon stocks. The soil CO2 emission (FCO2) was recorded with a portable automated LI-COR soil flow system (LI-8100). The soil temperature (Tsolo) was monitored concomitantly with the soil CO2 emission evaluations using a temperature sensor that is an integral part of the LI-8100 system. Soil moisture was recorded using a Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) apparatus - Campbel® Hydrosense ™ Campbell Scientific. The data were submitted to descriptive statistical analyzes and multiple linear regression with the pedotransfer functions model criterion. The study demonstrates the variation of physical and chemical attributes of the soil and its influence on CO2 efflux variation, since the different environments studied presented differentiated scales and attributes for each situation, due to the correlations presented.

The crop systems adopted in the Amazônia region have been studied several times in terms of the variability and to indicate the soil attributes more sensitive to the different crops. Thus, the objective of this work was to apply multivariate techniques in order to identify the chemical attributes most sensitive to environmental changes in different crop systems in Western Amazonia, Brazil. The research was conducted in five rural properties located in the Humaitá city region, Western Amazonia, Brazil. There were selected four environments with natural characteristics (Native Forest - NF) and five cropping systems (Grazing, Cassava, Açaí, Agroforestry and Reforestation). In the selected areas, soil samples were collected at depths layers of 0.0-0.05 m; 0.05-0.1 m and 0.1-0.2 m and the following chemical analyzes were performed: pH in water, Ca2+, Mg2+, K +, Resin-P, phosphorus bio-available particulate (Pbp), OC, Al3+, H++Al3+ and from these results SB, T, t, m% and V% were calculated. Multivariate statistical techniques were used to verify similarities between the crop systems in the attempt to relate the crops grown and the chemical attributes. The multivariate analysis was essential in the crop systems distinction, as well as to describe the relationship with the chemical properties. The results demonstrate and reinforce the existing variability between crop systems, with emphasis on the variation in crop systems, compared to natural environments.

Studying particle size distribution is important to understand soil structure and formation processes. This research aimed to assess the fractal dimension of soil texture in Indian Dark Earth (IDE) areas in southern Amazonas state under different land uses, as follows: two areas in the municipality of Apuí, one growing cocoa and the other coffee; a grassland area in the municipality of Manicoré; and a forest area in the municipality of Novo Aripuanã. A sampling grid containing 88 collection points (intersecting points on the grid) was established in each area, measuring 80 x 42 m for the cocoa and coffee-growing sites, and 80 x 56 m and 60 x 42 m for the grassland and forest areas, respectively. Soil samples were collected in soil core and as clumps at a depth of 0.0-0.20m to determine the structural physical properties and texture of the soil. The following physical attributes were assessed: texture (PSD), bulk density (BD), macroporosity (Macro), microporosity (Micro), total porosity (TP) and aggregate stability (GMD and WMD). The fractal dimension (D) of the soil texture was determined, followed by analysis of variance and comparison of the means using Tukey’s test (p≤0.05). Pearson’s correlation was applied to assess the correlation between variables. There was a significant difference between the IDEs studied, with a higher D value in the cocoa-growing area in relation to the other sites. Additionally, the larger the clay fraction, the higher the D value. Fractal dimension (D) showed a positive correlation with sand, clay, BD, Macro, GMD and WMD, and a negative correlation with silt, micro, TP. Based on the D values obtained, the ADE cultivated with cocoa showed superior quality in relation to the other areas studied.

Algumas áreas de Terra Preta Arqueológica na Amazônia vêm sendo utilizadas com pastagem o que tem gerado grande preocupação quanto às alterações dos atributos físicos e o estado de agregação do solo. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a variabilidade espacial e as possíveis modificações dos atributos físicos e agregados do solo em terra preta arqueológica sob pastagem. Uma grade de 80 x 56m foi usada e a amostragem realizada em 88 pontos em disposição de 8 x 8m. Nas camadas de 0-0,05, 0,05-0,10 e 0,10-0,20m foram avaliados: a densidade do solo (Ds), carbono orgânico total (COT), estoque de carbono (Est C), diâmetro médio ponderado (DMP), macroporosidade (Macro), microporosidade (Micro) e volume total de poros (VTP). Pelo exame de semivariogramas constatou-se a ocorrência de dependência espacial. Mesmo a área de estudo sendo em pastagem observou-se que os valores de Ds, Macro e VTP, estiveram acima ou abaixo dos valores de referências que podem causar restrição ao crescimento radicular de plantas e à infiltração de água no solo. O DMP e Ds foram dependentes do COT, pois os valores de ambos aumentam ou diminuem de acordo com a camada. Com o aumento da camada do solo, houve o acréscimo do estoque de carbono.

The Amazon region has a great diversity of landscapes such as forests galleries, natural fields (“Cerrados Amazônicos”), dense forest, these environments made possible the formation of a broad class of soils over time. The aim of this study was to evaluate the physical and chemical properties of soils in different physiographic environments in southern Amazonas, Brazil. Three areas of representative physiographies were selected, all of them in natural conditions: natural field / forest and floodplain / dry land transitions, and corrugated relief areas. Soil samples were collected in layers of 0.0 to 0.20 and 0.80-1.0 m. From the samples collected the following physical analyzes were performed: particle size, bulk density, particle density, total porosity and saturated hydraulic conductivity; and chemical: exchangeable calcium, magnesium, aluminum and potassium available, phosphorus, potential acidity, pH and organic carbon. Based on the results of chemical analysis were calculated the sum of bases and base saturation. The results were submitted to multivariate statistics analysis, at the discretion of the principal component analysis (PCA). From the results it is clear that different physiographic environments studied influence the formation of different soil classes, featuring the diversity of Amazonian soils. The PCA allowed the distinction and formation of different similarity groups, thus enabling to relate the physical and chemical properties with the physiographic formation in which they are inserted.

The soil and vegetation characteristics of the southern Amazonas region include highly weathered soils, high aluminum content and some hydromorphic conditions, its vegetation is composed from grasslands to small isolated trees and forest galleries along the rivers streams. In this way, this work aims to characterize and classify the soil in areas of clean field, dirty field, and forest in Humaitá region AM. Soil trenches were opened in the clean field, dirty field, and forest environments, soil profiles were morphologically characterized, and samples were collected from their horizons. Physical analysis of texture, dispersed clay in water, flocculation, bulk density, particle density and porosity were performed. The chemical analyzes included pH and KCl in water; Ca, Mg, K, Al, and; available P; H+Al and organic C; SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 sulfuric attack. The soils were classified according to criteria established by the Brazilian System of Soil Classification and Soil Taxonomy. The forest, dirty field (high) and clean field (low) showed different soil types, Typic Dystrudept for the first two environments and Typic Fluvaquents for last. Multivariate techniques expressed the similarity relations presenting between the different environments studied, characterizing, which are of great importance in the relation landscape-soil studies.

Archeological Dark Earths (ADEs) are fertility soils that are notoriously superior to the vast majority of soils typical of the Amazon region. The study on ADEs has intensified due to the good characteristics presented by these soils, such as high concentration of nutrients (phosphorus, calcium, magnesium). In this sense, the aim of this study was to evaluate the spatial distribution of soil chemical attributes in an area of black archeological earth soil under cocoa cultivation in the municipality of Apuí (AM). The mapping of a 42 x 88 m mesh, with irregular spacing of 6 x 8 m, totaling 88 points, was carried out, and then soil samples were collected at depths of 0.0-0.05; 0.05-0.10; (pH, O.C, Sto C, (H+Al), P, K, Ca, Mg, SB, CEC and V%). Data were analyzed using descriptive and geostatistical statistics techniques. The mean and median values were adjusted to the near values, indicating normal distribution, while the soil chemical attributes were adjusted to the spherical and exponential semivariograms models. The majority of the attributes presented coefficient of variation (CV) between 12.1 and 60%, characterized as average variability, the variables in the study presented different ranges and most of them had a strong spatial dependence. The geostatistical techniques used allowed the adjustments of the theoretical models that best represented the experimental semivariance, thus enabling the construction of thematic maps of the spatial distribution of the values of the attributes of the studied area.

O conhecimento da distribuição espacial da temperatura, umidade do solo e emissão de CO2 é fundamental para entender o solo como fonte ou dreno de CO2, pois as alterações quanto ao uso e manejo influenciam esta dinâmica. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo investigar, a temperatura, umidade do solo e emissão de CO2 em uma área sob pastagem na região de Humaitá, AM. Demarcou-se uma área de 70 x 70 m, com espaçamento regular de 10 m, totalizando 64 pontos, as medições foram realizadas no período chuvoso e seco. Emissão de CO2 e a temperatura do solo foram registradas utilizando-se de câmara de fluxo portátil e sensor de temperatura do sistema LI-COR (LI-8100). A umidade foi avaliada utilizando sistema portátil TDR, em seguida foram realizadas análises estatísticas descritivas e geoestatísticas. A área de pastagem apresentou maior emissão de CO2 do solo no primeiro período de coleta, caracterizado como período chuvoso. Variações espaciais da emissão de CO2 estão intimamente relacionadas com as variáveis climáticas entre os períodos seco e chuvoso.

Amazonian are highly weathered soils and characterized by high acidity, high aluminum saturation and low nutrient concentration, due to the high leach rates. The objective of this study was to evaluate the spatial distribution of acidity components in natural field environment in the region of Humaita, Amazonas. The study area is located in the region of Humaitá, south of Amazonas state, being situated in the geographical coordinates of (7 30 '24 "S and 63º 04' 56" W), the soil is classified as Cambissolo Háplico Alítico plíntico (CXalf). Soil samplings were conducted between March and October 2012 respectively in the natural field area, collected in sampling grid layout with dimensions of 70 mx 70 m and regular spacing between sampling points 10 m, sampled at two depths: 0 , 0 to 0.020 me 0.40-0.60 m. The following chemical analyzes were performed: pH in water potentiometrically determined by the ratio 1: 2.5, the exchangeable aluminum was determined from extraction solution KCl 1 mol / L-1 and the potential acidity extracted with buffered solution of calcium acetate pH 7.0. The results were subjected to analysis of descriptive statistics and geostatistics. From the mean values obtained for the soil acidity components to the natural field area, these results demonstrate the acidic nature of the soil environment and the possible correlation of a low concentration of bases due to the greater complexation of Al3+.

The advancement of agricultural activities without considering the soil structural conditions ceases at the expense of those environments. This study aimed at evaluating the spatial variability of aggregate stability, bulk density, total organic carbon (TOC) and carbon stock in areas of natural grassland and forest, in the region of Humaitá, Amazonas State, Brazil. The soils were sampled at the crossing points of a grid with 70 m x 70 m, at regular intervals of 10 m, at the depths of 0.0-0.05 m, 0.05-0.10 m and 0.10-0.20 m, totaling 64 samples per depth. The results of the geostatistical analysis showed spatial dependence of attributes. The smaller ranges resulted from the constant variations in the relief of the natural grassland area. The mean values for mean weight diameter (MWD) and TOC were respectively around 3.0 mm and 29.0 g kg-1 of the surface layer, similarly to natural grassland and forest areas, confirming the proportional correlation between TOC and MWD. However, the bulk density greater than 1.40 kg dm-3 expresses the inefficiency of soil structural functions in the natural grassland area. The carbon stock contents at the different depths were more favored by TOC than by the different densification levels of the soils evaluated.

Atualmente compreender os fatores que influenciam nas emissões de CO2 em ambientes amazônicos vem sendo discutidos na proporção em que ocorre o acelerado aumento nas variações climáticas, como as de temperatura e precipitação as quais influenciam nas trocas entre os ecossistemas terrestres e a atmosfera. Diante do exposto, objetivou-se com este trabalho avaliar a distribuição espacial da emissão de CO2 e atributos do solo sob campo nativo na região de Humaitá, Amazonas. Foi delimitada uma malha de 70 m x 70 m com 64 pontos amostrais espaçados regularmente pela distância de 10 m. Esses pontos foram georreferenciados e, em seguida, foram realizadas as coletas de solo em cada ponto da malha nas camadas de 0,00-0,05 m e 0,05-0,10 m para determinação dos atributos do solo, totalizando 128 amostras de solo. Foram avaliados o fluxo de CO2, fatores ambientais (temperatura e umidade do solo), atributos físicos (macroporosidade, microporosidade, porosidade total e densidade do solo), carbono orgânico total e estoque de carbono. As emissões de CO2 na área de campo nativo nas condições do presente estudo são fenômenos de natureza complexa, não sendo possível identificar um único atributo do solo ou do ambiente que explique sua variação no espaço, indicando assim que a dificuldade encontrada ao estabelecer relações entre os atributos do solo e emissão de CO2 ocorre devido à complexidade do fenômeno.

Natural grasslands with savannah-like characteristics associated to forest mosaics are found within Southern and Eastern Amazonas, Western Rondônia and Northern Roraima, being conditioned to local edaphic factors. The aim of this study was to assess both physical and geospatial attributes of an Cambisol under natural grasslands and an Ultisol under a forest fragment in Humaitá - AM, Brazil. In each area, we established a sampling grid in the dimensions of 70 × 70 m, with regular sampling spacing of 10 m and three collection depths: 0.0-0.05, 0.05-0.10 and 0.10-0.20 m, totaling 192 sampling points. Macroporosity (MaP), microporosity (MiP), bulk density (Ds) and total porosity (TP) were determined by soil samples with preserved structure, using a volumetric ring. Soil resistance to penetration (SRP) was measured by an automatic penetrometer after being subjected to a 0.006 MPa tension. Data were submitted to descriptive statistics and geostatistics analysis. The soil under natural grasslands showed values considered critical of Ds, SRP, MaP at all evaluated depths, with significant values at 0.10-0.20 m layer of 1.54 kg dm-3; 2.08 MPa and 0.05 m3 m-3, respectively. Ultisol under the forest fragments showed higher range values and consequently greater geospatial continuity due to the assessed physical attributes, since this soil has a greater stability of its physical structure. Based on the physical properties of the soil, structural function ineffectiveness of the Ultisol is a key factor for the occurrence of grassland in this region.

Os solos predominantes na região Amazônica pertencem à classe dos Latossolos e Argissolos, caracterizado por seu alto grau de intemperismo e baixa fertilidade natural, em contraste, ocorrem às terras pretas arqueológicas com elevada fertilidade natural e alto teor de matéria orgânica. Objetivou-se com este estudo caracterizar quanto aos atributos físicos e químicos as terras pretas arqueológicas e os solos não antropogênicos da região de Manicoré, AM. Foram amostrados quatro sítios de Terras Pretas Arqueológicas e quatro solos não antropogênicos distribuídos na região de Manicoré, sul do Amazonas. Nesses locais foram abertas trincheiras e os perfis foram caracterizados morfologicamente e coletados por horizonte. Foramrealizadas análises físicas (textura e densidade do solo) e químicas (pH em água, Ca, Mg, K, e Al trocáveis, P disponível, e C orgânico). Os valores de pH, carbono orgânico, soma de bases e V% das terras pretas arqueológicas foram superiores aos observados para solos não antropogênicos da região de Manicoré, AM. Os solos não antropogênicos apresentaram maiores valores de densidade do solo quando comparados às áreas de terra preta arqueológica. Os maiores teores de matéria orgânica do solo foram encontrados nas áreas de terra preta arqueológica. As terras pretas arqueológicas deste estudo apresentam atributos químicos e físico-químicos superiores aos solos não antropogênicos, conferindo-lhes maior fertilidade.The predominant soils in the Amazon region belong to the class of Oxisols and Ultisols, characterized by its high degree of weathering and low natural fertility, in contrast, occur at Archaeological Dark Earths soils with high fertility and high organic matter content. The aim of this study was the physical and chemical characterization of archaeological dark earths and non-anthropogenic soils in the southern Amazon. Four archaeological sites with dark earths and four non-anthropogenic soils distributed in the Manicoré region, souther Amazon, were sampled. In these locations, open trenches and profiles were characterized morphologically and collected by horizon. Physical (texture and bulk density) and chemical (pH, Ca, Mg, K,and Al, P, and organic C) analyses were realized. The values of pH, organic carbon, total bases and V% in archaeological dark earths were higher than those observed in the non-anthropogenic soils the Manicore, Amazon region. The non-anthropogenic soils showed higher bulk density compared to areas of archaeological dark earths. The highest levels of soil organic matter were found in areas of archaeological dark earths. The archaeological dark earths of this study show the chemical and physicchemical above the non-anthropogenic soils, giving them more fertile.

Os solos predominantes na região Amazônica pertencem à classe dos Latossolos e Argissolos, caracterizado por seu alto grau de intemperismo e baixa fertilidade natural, em contraste, ocorrem às terras pretas arqueológicas com elevada fertilidade natural e alto teor de matéria orgânica. Objetivou-se com este estudo caracterizar quanto aos atributos físicos e químicos as terras pretas arqueológicas e os solos não antropogênicos da região de Manicoré, AM. Foram amostrados quatro sítios de Terras Pretas Arqueológicas e quatro solos não antropogênicos distribuídos na região de Manicoré, sul do Amazonas. Nesses locais foram abertas trincheiras e os perfis foram caracterizados morfologicamente e coletados por horizonte. Foram realizadas análises físicas (textura e densidade do solo) e químicas (pH em água, Ca, Mg, K, e Al trocáveis, P disponível, e C orgânico). Os valores de pH, carbono orgânico, soma de bases e V% das terras pretas arqueológicas foram superiores aos observados para solos não antropogênicos da região de Manicoré, AM. Os solos não antropogênicos apresentaram maiores valores de densidade do solo quando comparados às áreas de terra preta arqueológica. Os maiores teores de matéria orgânica do solo foram encontrados nas áreas de terra preta arqueológica. As terras pretas arqueológicas deste estudo apresentam atributos químicos e físico-químicos superiores aos solos não antropogênicos, conferindo-lhes maior fertilidade.