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Objectives Maternal depression occurs in 13-20% of women from low-income countries, which is associated with negative child health outcomes, including diarrheal disease. However, few studies have investigated its impact on child risk of infectious disease. We studied the impacts of maternal depressive symptoms and parent-child interactions, independently, on the risk of Plasmodium falciparum malaria and soil-transmitted helminth infection in Beninese children. Methods Our population included mothers and children enrolled in a clinical trial during pregnancy (MiPPAD) in Benin. The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) assessed maternal depressive symptoms and the home observation measurement of the environment (HOME) assessed parent-child interactions. Blood and stool sample analyses diagnosed child malaria and helminth infection at 12, 18, and 24 months. Negative binomial and Poisson regression models with robust variance tested associations. Results Of the 302 mother-child pairs, 39 (12.9%) mothers had depressive symptoms. Median number of malaria episodes per child was 3 (0-14) and 29.1% children had at least one helminth infection. Higher EPDS scores were associated with lower HOME scores; relative risk (RR) 0.97 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.95, 0.99), particularly with lower acceptance, involvement, and variety subscales; RR 0.92 (95% CI 0.85, 0.99), RR 0.82 (95% CI 0.77, 0.88), RR 0.93 (95% CI 0.88, 0.99), respectively. However, neither exposure was associated with risk of parasitic infection in children. Conclusions for Practice Maternal depressive symptoms are associated with poor parent-child interactions, particularly acceptance of behavior, involvement with children, and variety of interactions, but these exposures do not independently impact risk of parasitic infection in children., Author(s): Amanda Garrison [sup.1] [sup.2] [sup.3] , Joanna Maselko [sup.4] , Marie-Josèphe Saurel-Cubizolles [sup.2] , David Courtin [sup.5] , Roméo Zoumenou [sup.6] , Michael J. Boivin [sup.7] , Achille Massougbodji [...]

Cumulative lifetime adversity and social support were investigated as determinants of psychosocial adjustment (esteem, distress, hopefulness, positive outlook/future aspirations, and sense of purpose) over 12 months in 6-10-years-old HIV-infected, HIV-exposed uninfected and HIV-unexposed uninfected children from Uganda. Each determinant and psychosocial adjustment indicator was self-reported using standardized questionnaires administered at baseline, 6, and 12 months. Linear mixed effects models were used to relate time-varying lifetime adversity and social support to psychosocial adjustment over 12 months. Regardless of HIV status, higher adversity predicted lower esteem (coefficient b = -2.98, 95% confidence interval (CI): [-4.62, -1.35]) and increased distress (b =3.96, 95% CI: [1.29, 6.62]) but was not associated with hopefulness, positive outlook or sense of purpose. Low social support predicted higher distress (b =9.05, 95% CI: [7.36, 10.73]), lower positive outlook (b = -10.56, 95% CI: [-2.34, -8.79]) and low sense of purpose (b = -9.90, 95% CI: [-11.44, -8.36]) over 12 months. Pragmatic interventions that enhance coping with adversity and provide emotional/instrumental support should be tested for effectiveness in promoting resilient psychosocial adjustment trajectory in vulnerable children.

Caregiver's and child's self-reported quality of life (QOL) was defined using standardized questionnaires in a sample (N = 277) of 6-10 years old HIV-infected, HIV-exposed uninfected, and HIV-unexposed uninfected children from Uganda. Psychosocial stress (acute stress and cumulative lifetime adversity) and physiologic stress (dysregulations across 13 biomarkers), perinatal HIV status, and their interaction were related to child QOL via general linear models. Lower child- and caregiver-reported psychosocial stress were dose-dependently associated with higher QOL (acute stress: mean difference coefficient b = 8.1-14.8, effect size [ES] = 0.46-0.83). Lower allostasis was dose-dependently associated with higher QOL (b = 6.1-9.7, ES = 0.34-0.54). Given low caregiver acute stress, QOL for HIV-infected was similar to HIV-uninfected children; however, given high caregiver acute stress, a QOL disadvantage (b = -7.8, 95% CI: -12.8, -2.8; ES = -0.73) was evident for HIV-infected versus uninfected children. Testing of caregiver stress reduction interventions is warranted to increase wellbeing in dependent children.

Introduction: Many children living with HIV (CLWH) display impaired cognition. Although early combination antiretrovira therapy (ART) produces improved cognitive outcomes, more long-term outcome data are needed. After concluding the Children with HIV Early antiRetroviral (CHER) trial in 2011, we investigated cognitive performance, at seven and nine years of age. Participants had been randomized to deferred ART (ART-Def; n = 22); immediate time-limited ART for 40 weeks (ART40W; n = 30) and immediate time-limited ART for 96 weeks (ART-96W; n = 18). We also recruited HIV-exposed uninfected (CHEU; n = 28) and HIV-unexposed (CHU; n = 35) children. Methods: Data were collected between May 2012 and December 2017. Mixed-model repeated-measures ANOVAs assessed differences over time between CLWH (ART-40W, ART-96W and ART-Def) and CHIV- CHEU and CHU between ART-Early (ART-40W and ART-96W), ART-Def, CHEU and CHU; and between ART-40W, ART-96W, ART-Def, CHEU and CHU. Results: All comparisons found significant effects of Time for most outcome variables (better scores at nine than at seven years; ps < 0.05). The first ANOVAs found that for (a) motor dexterity, CLWH performed worse than CHIV- at seven years (p < 0.001) but improved to equivalence at nine years, (b) visual-spatial processing and problem solving, only CLWH (p < 0.04) showed significant performance improvement over time and (c) working memory and executive function, CLWH performed worse than CHIV- at both seven and nine years (p = 0.03 and 0.04). The second ANOVAs found that for (a) working memory, CHU performed better than ART-Early and CHEU (p < 0.01 and 0.17). Similarly, for motor dexterity, ART-Def performed worse than ART-96W, CHEU and CHU at seven years (p < 0.04, 0.20). Conclusions: Although neurocognitive developmental trajectories for treatment groups and controls were largely similar (i.e. performance improvements from 7 to 9), all ART-treated children, regardless of treatment arm, remain at risk for cognitive deficits over early school ages. Although the nature of these deficits may change as cognitive development proceeds, there are potential negative consequences for these children's future learning, reasoning and adaptive functioning. Keywords: antiretroviral therapy; The Children with HIV Early Antiretrovira Therapy (CHER) trial; HIV/AIDS; HIV-associated neurocognitive impairment; paediatric HIV; working memory, 1 | INTRODUCTION Despite treatment advances, many children living with HIV (CLWH) have impaired cognitive performance [1-3]. Early and severe HIV-related neurological manifestations such as encephalopathy, increase the risk of [...]

Objectives Parenting self-efficacy has been associated with positive parenting behaviors, fewer parental mental health problems, less family dysfunction, and better child development outcomes. The parenting sense of competence (PSOC) scale is commonly used to measure parenting self-efficacy in high-resource settings. This study sought to examine the factor structure, internal consistency, and convergent construct validity of the PSOC in a sample of predominantly HIV-infected women in Uganda. Methods Using data from 155 HIV-affected caregivers who participated in a randomized controlled trial of a parenting intervention, two and three factor models of a 16-item translated version of the PSOC were tested using confirmatory factor analysis. Multivariable regression models were used to examine relationships between parenting confidence (operationalized using the best-fitting PSOC model), caregiver mental health symptoms (depression and anxiety), social support, family dysfunction, and family wealth, after adjusting for covariates. Results Neither the two- nor three-factor models of the PSOC demonstrated adequate model fit; however, adequate model fit was demonstrated for a one-factor model that included only items from the PSOC efficacy subscale. Cronbach's alpha was 0.73 for this subscale. Correlates of parenting self-efficacy in this sample included caregiver depression, family dysfunction, and family wealth, but not caregiver anxiety or social support. Conclusions for Practice These findings lend support for future use of the PSOC efficacy subscale among HIV-affected caregivers of children in low-resource settings such as rural Uganda., Author(s): Jura L. Augustinavicius [sup.1] , Sarah M. Murray [sup.2] , Itziar Familiar-Lopez [sup.3] , Michael J. Boivin [sup.4] , Alex Mutebe [sup.5] , Ethan Arima [sup.5] , Judith K. [...]

Background Most neurodevelopmental tests used to assess child development in sub-Saharan Africa were developed in western or high-income countries, raising the question of their usefulness with African children. Objective This systematic review identified and synthesized key findings from studies measuring development in children in Sub-Saharan Africa in early childhood and again at school age, to assess neurocognitive associations longitudinally from infancy through middle childhood. Methods The study was based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses method, selecting articles referenced in the PubMed, PsycInfo, and Embase databases using the following inclusion criteria: published between 2000 and 2022, written in French or English, and presenting results dealing with the objective assessment of child's neurodevelopment. All articles were registered in the Zotero reference manager and analyzed by title, abstract, and full text. Results Several of the seven selected studies confirmed that attention and working memory in infancy can predict children's neurocognitive performance, including mathematical ability, at school age. In two of the studies, children with poor mental development at 1 year of age are more likely to present with poorer behavioral development at school age, including learning difficulties in school and risk for grade repetition. Conclusion Cognitive ability assessed in early childhood is strongly associated with performance at school age in cohorts of African children followed longitudinally. Even with assessments adapted cross-culturally, infants and preschoolers at risk for poor developmental outcomes can be identified to better receive strategic early interventions to enhance their development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fifty-six Ugandan mothers/caregivers received Mediational Intervention for Sensitizing Caregivers (MISC) biweekly for one year; 46 mothers received treatment-as-usual. Preschool PHIV child attention was measured by proportion of time viewing a 7-min animation (early childhood vigilance test or ECVT) at enrollment, 6 and 12 months. Analysis of covariance compared ECVT outcomes for the two intervention groups, controlling for baseline ECVT performance, age and weight-for-age z scores. Differences by trial arm were not significant at any of the three time points. MISC trial-arm children on combination ART during the study period displayed more stable ECVT scores across time points compared to controls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Despite improved efficacy of, and access to, combination antiretroviral therapy (cART), HIV-associated cognitive impairments remain prevalent in both children and adults. Neuropsychological tests that detect such impairment can help clinicians formulate effective treatment plans. The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC), although developed and standardized in the United States, is used frequently in many different countries and cultural contexts to assess paediatric performance across various cognitive domains. This systematic review investigated the cross-cultural utility of the original KABC, and its 2nd edition (KABC-II), in detecting HIV-associated cognitive impairment in children and adolescents. Methods: We entered relevant keywords and MeSH terms into the PubMed, PsycInfo, EBSCOHost, ProQuest, and Scopus databases, with search limits set from 1983-2017. Two independent reviewers evaluated the retrieved abstracts and manuscripts. Studies eligible for inclusion in the review were those that (a) used the KABC/KABC-II to assess cognitive function in children/adolescents aged 2-18 years, (b) featured a definition of cognitive impairment (e.g. >2 SD below the mean) or compared the performance of HIV-infected and uninfected control groups, and (c) used a sample excluded from population on which the instruments were normed. Results and discussion: We identified nine studies (eight conducted in African countries, and one in the United Kingdom) to comprise the review's sample. All studies detected cognitive impairment in HIV-infected children, including those who were cART-naive or who were cART treated and clinically stable. KABC/KABC-II subtests assessing simultaneous processing appeared most sensitive. Evaluation of the methodological quality of the selected studies by two independent reviews suggested that shortcomings included reporting and selection biases. Conclusions: This systematic review provides evidence for the cross-cultural utility of the KABC/KABC-II, particularly the simultaneous processing subtests, in detecting cognitive impairment in HIV-infected children (including those who are clinically stable). Although the current results suggest there is justification for using the KABC/KABC-II primarily in East Africa, further investigation is required to explore the instrument's utility in other HIV-prevalent regions of the globe. Keywords: cognitive impairment; cross-cultural; HIV; Kaufman assessment battery for children; paediatric; systematic review, Introduction Recent global estimates suggest that 3.2 million children under 15 years of age are living with HIV. Ninety-one per cent (more than 2.9 million) of those children reside in [...]

Globally, there is a crucial need to prioritize research directed at reducing neurological, mental health and substance-use disorders in adolescence, which is a pivotal age for the development of self-control and regulation. In adolescence, behaviour optimally advances towards adaptive long-term goals and suppresses conflicting maladaptive short-lived urges to balance impulsivity, exploration and defiance, while establishing effective societal participation. When self-control fails to develop, violence, injury and neurological, mental health and substance-use disorders can result, further challenging the development of self-regulation and impeding the transition to a productive adulthood. Adolescent outcomes, positive and negative, arise from both a life- course perspective and within a socioecological framework. Little is known about the emergence of self-control and regulation in adolescents in low- and middle- income countries where enormous environmental threats are more common (for example, poverty, war, local conflicts, sex trafficking and slavery, early marriage and/or pregnancy, and the absence of adequate access to education) than in high-income countries and can threaten optimal neurodevelopment. Research must develop or adapt appropriate assessments of adolescent ability and disability, social inclusion and exclusion, normative development, and neurological, mental health and substance-use disorders. Socioecological challenges in low- and middle-income countries require innovative strategies to prevent mental health, neurological and substance-use disorders and develop effective interventions for adolescents at risk, especially those already living with these disorders and the consequent disability. Nature527, S161-S166 (19 November 2015), DOI: 10.1038/nature16030 This article has not been written or reviewed by Nature editors. Nature accepts no responsibility for the accuracy of the information provided., Adolescent neurological, mental health and substance-use (NMS) disorders in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must be addressed to ensure optimal development of 'human capital' for the future (1). Adolescents, defined [...]

We define neurodevelopment as the dynamic inter-relationship between genetic, brain, cognitive, emotional and behavioural processes across the developmental lifespan. Significant and persistent disruption to this dynamic process through environmental and genetic risk can lead to neurodevelopmental disorders and disability. Research designed to ameliorate neurodevelopmental disorders in low- and middle-income countries, as well as globally, will benefit enormously from the ongoing advances in understanding their genetic and epigenetic causes, as modified by environment and culture. We provide examples of advances in the prevention and treatment of, and the rehabilitation of those with, neurodevelopment disorders in low- and middle-income countries, along with opportunities for further strategic research initiatives. Our examples are not the only possibilities for strategic research, but they illustrate problems that, when solved, could have a considerable impact in low-resource settings. In each instance, research in low- and middle-income countries led to innovations in identification, surveillance and treatment of a neurodevelopmental disorder. These innovations have also been integrated with genotypic mapping of neurodevelopmental disorders, forming important preventative and rehabilitative interventions with the potential for high impact. These advances will ultimately allow us to understand how epigenetic influences shape neurodevelopmental risk and resilience over time and across populations. Clearly, the most strategic areas of research opportunity involve cross-disciplinary integration at the intersection between the environment, brain or behaviour neurodevelopment, and genetic and epigenetic science. At these junctions a robust integrative cross- disciplinary scientific approach is catalysing the creation of technologies and interventions for old problems. Such approaches will enable us to achieve and sustain the United Nations moral and legal mandate for child health and full development as a basic global human right. Nature 527, S155-S160 (19 November 2015), DOI: 10.1038/nature16029 This article has not been written or reviewed by Nature editors. Nature accepts no responsibility for the accuracy of the information provided., One evaluation of early childhood developmental status in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) estimates that 15.7% of children are significantly delayed in their cognitive development, 26.3% in socioemotional development and [...]

We provide initial evidence that an eye-tracking based measure of infant attention and working memory (gaze preference for novel human faces) can predict aspects of neurocognitive performance years later among Ugandan children. 49 HIV-exposed/uninfected Ugandan children (22 boys, 27 girls) 6-12 months old were tested with the Mullen Scales of Early Learning and a modified Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence (FTII). Modified FTII measures pertaining to attention are correlated to the KABC-II Mental Processing Index (MPI) (rp = -0.40), p Cognitive assessments adapted to eye-tracking instrumentation can be useful to evaluate attention and working memory in HIV-affected children living in low- and middle-income countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is limited information on knowledge, perceptions, and management of sickle cell disease (SCD) in Africa in general and in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) in particular. This study explored knowledge, perceptions, and burden of 26 parents/caregivers of children with SCD in three selected hospitals in Kinshasa, DRC. We conducted a focus group with in-depth interviews with parents/caregivers of children affected with SCD. Four themes were discussed, including knowledge and perceptions, diagnosis and management, society's perceptions, and the psychosocial burden and the quality of life of the family affected by SCD. The majority of participants/caregivers felt that society, in general, had negative perceptions of, attitudes toward, and knowledge about SCD. They reported that children with sickle cell are often marginalized, ignored, and excluded from society or school. They face a number of challenges related to care, management, financial difficulties, and a lack of psychological support. The results suggest the need to promote measures and strategies to improve knowledge and management of SCD in Kinshasa, DRC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

: Introduction: Infection with HIV subtype A has been associated with poorer neurocognitive outcomes compared to HIV subtype D in Ugandan children not eligible for antiretroviral therapy (ART). In this study, we sought to determine whether subtype‐specific differences are also observed among children receiving ART. Materials and Methods: Children were recruited from a clinical trial in which they were randomized to receive either lopinavir (LPV)‐ or non‐nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI)‐ based ART (NCT00978068). Age at initiation of ART ranged from six months to six years. HIV subtype was determined by PCR amplification and population sequencing of the pol region derived from peripheral blood mononuclear cell DNA, followed by application of the REGA and Recombinant Identification Programme algorithms. General cognition was assessed using the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (Second Edition), attention using the Test of Variables of Attention, and motor skills using the Bruininks‐Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (Second Edition). Home environment was assessed using the Home Observation for the Measurement of the Environment (HOME). Age‐adjusted test z‐scores were entered into a regression model that adjusted for sex, socio‐economic status score, HOME score, years of schooling, and ART treatment type. Results: One hundred and five children were tested; median (interquartile range) age was 7.05 years (6.30 to 8.44), CD4 count was 867.7 cells/mm[sup.3] (416.0 to 1203.5), and duration on ART was 4.03 years (3.55 to 4.23). Seventy‐eight children had HIV subtype A and 27 had subtype D; the groups had comparable home and socio‐economic status, except that there were more males among children infected with subtype A than D (64.7% vs. 35.3%, p = 0.02). There were no differences between the subtypes in general cognition (estimated mean difference: 0.20; 95% CI: −0.11 to 0.50); p = 0.21), attention (−0.18, 95% CI: −0.60 to 0.24, p = 0.41) and motor skills (1.60, 95% CI: −0.84 to 4.04, p = 0.20). Conclusions: Our results imply that ART may diminish the neurocognitive disadvantage seen in treatment‐naïve HIV‐infected children with subtype A., Introduction Access to antiretroviral therapy (ART) in low and middle‐income countries has increased over the years and contributed to improved health outcomes in HIV‐infected children including neurocognitive outcomes. However, neurocognitive [...]

Past studies have demonstrated an inverse relationship between religiosity and addictive behaviors, such as gambling, smoking, alcoholism, and substance use. This association suggests that religiosity may act as a buffer [...]

OBJECTIVE. The purpose of this study was to assess the health status and school-age neurodevelopmental progress of antiretroviral treatment (ARVT)--naive, HIV-infected Ugandan children who had been followed as part of cohorts of children born to HIV-infected and -noninfected mothers between 1989 and 1993. METHODS. Twenty-eight children, aged 6 to 12 years, vertically infected with HIV-1 and never treated with ARVT were evaluated in terms of health status, neurologic, and psychometric testing. A randomly selected group of 42 seroreverters and 37 HIV-1 negative children who were age- and gender-matched and who had been followed in the same cohorts were evaluated also. The families studied were homogenous in their socioeconomic status. None of the mothers or children had received ARVT or been exposed to illicit drugs. RESULTS. The HIV-infected children showed significantly more evidence of acute malnutrition. They also had more illness, especially parotitis, otitis media, upper respiratory infections, and lymphadenopathy. However, they did not differ significantly in neurologic and cognitive assessments when compared with age- and gender-matched seroreverter and HIV-negative children. They were in the normal range with respect to neurologic and psychometric development measures. CONCLUSIONS. These children seem to represent a significant subgroup of HIV-infected child survivors for whom the progress of the disease is less aggressive throughout early life. Given the fact that many infants, especially in developing countries, continue to be born without the benefit of perinatal ARVT, there will likely continue to be many older HIV-infected children in the same situation as those described in this follow-up study. They will not have been recognized as being HIV-infected. It is important that such children be identified and offered access to ARVT and other appropriate support services. Key Words HIV, pediatrics, AIDS, cognitive ability, intelligence, motor development, social development, neuropsychology, children, Africa, Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, K-ABC Abbreviations CDC--Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ARVT--antiretroviral treatment SES--socioeconomic status K-ABC--Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children WRAT-3--Wide Range Achievement--Third Edition ANOVA--analysis of variance WAZ--weight-for-age z score(s) HAZ-- height-for-age z score(s) FTT--failure to thrive PE--progressive encephalopathy, THE DEVELOPMENTAL DEFICITS described in HIV-1--infected children have included language and motor skills, (1,3) verbal and memory deficits, (4) visual-spatial integrative ability, (5,6) executive function, (7) hypotonia, and/or hyperactivity. (8) [...]

In an overview of God and evolutionary theory in recent thought, Barbour (2000) categorizes various proponents as representing either a conflict, independence, dialogue, or integration approach. Using an evolutionary psychological [...]