Search

Spiritual values are part of major global forest-related policies and strategies for sustainable forest management. Despite ongoing research and current debates, the significance of spiritual values in sustainable forest management in the Global North remains under-theorised. As Forest Management Plans represent an important nexus between policies and practices, this study clarifies the significance of spiritual values in forest management plans. We applied a conceptual framework with nine ‘dimensions of spirituality’ to investigate ten plans from British Columbia (Canada) and ten plans from the Netherlands, deploying qualitative analysis through descriptive coding in Atlas.ti. We elicited and compared the spiritual dimensions represented in the underlying principles, objectives, and operational sections of forest management plans for both geographical locations. Their widespread occurrence suggests that spiritual values are considered essential elements of sustainable forest policy and management in the Global North, also in contexts with non-Indigenous populations. We grouped the articulations of the spiritual dimensions in Forest Management Plans into three themes: ‘Nature Experience’, ‘Spiritual Use’ and ‘History’. A comparison of the spiritual dimensions across these themes and geographical locations yields the following insights: 1) spiritual values of forests are not only articulated in the strategic sections of forest management plans, but also in operational sections; 2) in management planning, forest spirituality is not only strongly related to experience, but also to the (‘wise’) use of forests and to forest-related history; 3) Spiritual values are better operationalised in adaptive forms of management planning than in formal ‘technical’ planning structures. This offers new ways of understanding the role of spirituality in forests management plans and contributes new insights to current debates in forest science.

Cities face growing challenges and urban greenspaces (UGS) play a key role in improving cities liveability. UGS are complex socio-ecological systems and evidence-based and context-sensitive tools are needed to assist planning and manage environmentally sound and socially inclusive UGS. In this paper, we propose an innovative indicator-based tool to operationalize the biocultural diversity (BCD) framework in urban contexts, deriving from its three conceptual layers – materialized, lived and stewardship. Indicators proposed are bundled in themes representing essential components when assessing and analyzing urban BCD from a contextual and sensitizing perspective. The set of indicators highlight key features of socio-cultural and ecological systems, theirs links and interactions, both material and non-material, to capture the essence of biocultural diversity at site-level. By offering a uniform scoring system with the possibility to set site-specific benchmarks, these can be used in any type of greenspace of any city, while allowing different communities/neighborhoods/city councils to embrace different approaches to meet their objectives towards larger scale goals. Twelve urban parks in Lisbon were used as a test-bed for the indicator-based tool and proved its feasibility to gather an overall snapshot of all parks and to demonstrate the possibility to deepen the study to only two parks uncovering self-exclusion processes that otherwise would have remained hidden. The BCD tool brings together essential information scattered over several quality and good practices assessment tools and protocols and, by including indicators specifically addressing governance and stewardship, offers a policy-driven instrument able to capture trade-offs and/or synergies between ecological, social and political domains.

International forest policies are increasingly recognizing spiritual values as criteria for sustainable forest management. However, knowledge on how spiritual values are articulated in practice is scarce. Because most evidence remains anecdotal, the study of spiritual values in forest management remains unsystematized and under-theorized. Research is complicated by the widely diverging interpretations of the concept of spirituality in relation to forests. Drawing upon Saler’s family resemblances approach (2000 [1993]) and the dimensions of religion posed by Smart (1996, 2002), a framework with seven dimensions is proposed. The framework structures spiritual phenomena relevant to forest management so that they can be studied systematically. It attempts to accommodate the various ontologies and epistemologies connected to spirituality in forest management. We discuss the pros and cons of the framework and make recommendations for its application in the analysis of forest management plans and practices.

Urban green spaces (UGS) provide multiple benefits, and public parks in particular have a key role in supporting ecological and social sustainability in cities, contributing to human-nature interactions. We studied the interrelationships between uses, experiences and the environment by adopting a novel concept of urban biocultural diversity (BCD). The concept identifies three interlinked spheres of urban BCD: materialised, lived and stewardship. We conducted place-based research in 33 parks located in four European capitals: Helsinki, Berlin, Bucharest and Lisbon. A total of 1474 visitors were interviewed concerning their motivations to use the park and their experiences during the visit. Using an open-ended survey, we revealed more than 50 motivations for park use and over 100 features people enjoyed during their visits. On the other hand, visitors mentioned far fewer things that disturbed them (60). We revealed that despite the fact motivations to use parks were strongly human-oriented, visitors widely enjoyed the environmental characteristics of parks, and especially nature. We found that parks located in neighbourhoods with low socio-economic status and outside the central area of the city were structurally less diverse than parks located in the city core. The structurally diverse parks enhanced motivations to use them, and increased overall enjoyments of the environment. We revealed clear differences in motivations and enjoyments between cities, implying that the day-to-day practices of people using and experiencing nature varies between cities. peerReviewed

Relational values reflect the qualities of the relationships between humans and nature, such as care, social bonding, place attachment and spiritual meanings. In this perspective article, we argue that understanding relational values is vital for nature conservation, and we identify how incorporation of these values may function as leverage points for achieving more effective nature policy. We discuss the distinctive features of the concept of relational values and elaborate how relational values strongly influence people’s perceptions of, engagement with and action for nature. Relational values can also provide important deep leverage points for policy interventions aiming to support citizen’s contribution to nature conservation, to strengthen biodiversity policy and the relationship between people and nature. Based on three realms of leverage (re-think, re-structure and re-connect), we distinguish six routes through which relational values can be integrated in policies and practices of nature conservation: (1) incorporation of pluralized meanings of nature; (2) the uptake of relational language in policy discourse; (3) a prioritization of landscape-based policy; (4) empowering citizens in nature conservation; (5) re-orienting nature education to stimulate people’s personal bond with nature; and (6) using digital technology to stimulate new relationships with nature.

An increased involvement of citizens in the management of European green spaces raises questions about its contributions to nature conservation. In this research, we study the effects of different types of active citizenship in green space. Combining qualitative and quantitative methods, we look at the benefits of 50 green self-governance practices in which citizens aim to realize, manage or protect green space in the Netherlands. While most of these practices contribute to nature conservation (80%) and/or the conservation of cultural landscapes (50%), our analysis shows that the benefits of green self-governance are much broader. This includes so called ‘co-benefits’, social, cultural and economic benefits such as the use function of green for human activity (78%), environmental education (88%) and social cohesion (50%). The benefits and co-benefits of green self-governance strongly depend on the type of practice. Using a typology of green self-governance, we show that a majority of practices focuses on direct benefits to nature conservation through hands-on activities and/or political actions. However, we also show that this focus is regularly combined with efforts to realize co-benefits. Practices with an explicit focus on co-benefits often also produce benefits - and vice-versa. In this way, co-benefits can provide a first step towards the realization of more direct benefits to nature conservation. Even so, there are also tensions between benefits and co-benefits, for example when an increase of recreation negatively affects biodiversity values or when ‘wild’ nature is being replaced by a cultivated garden. Relating to co-benefits can be an effective strategy for governments or environmental NGO’s, but we have to be aware that the benefits generated by green self-governance are generally of a much smaller scale than those realized by ‘traditional’ managers of green space such as authorities.

This paper discusses the long-term management or ‘place-keeping’ of urban green space by citizens and highlights enabling and constraining factors that play a crucial role in this continuity. While authorities have historically been in charge of managing public green spaces, there is an increased involvement of citizens in green space management. It is therefore relevant to study how citizens can contribute towards place-keeping and realize a continuity in managing and conserving the qualities of urban green spaces. We contribute to these debates by looking at three European cases characterized by long-term involvement of citizens in place-keeping. We conducted document analysis and interviewing of key informants to study green space management over time. Our analysis highlights what factors have contributed towards the continuity of this management, but also shows challenges and difficulties which citizens have experienced. Based on our fieldwork, we identify three factors of particular relevance for the continuity of place-keeping involving citizens. We found that long-term continuity is supported by a degree of formalization : established rules and procedures within groups provide stability to citizens. We also highlight the importance of adaptive capacity : citizens need to be able to adapt to contextual changes in order to cope with external political, socio-economic and cultural developments over time. The supporting role of authorities was also key in legitimizing and supporting place-keeping by citizens. Authorities can support place-keeping by citizens by providing security via stable policies, formally protecting the involved spaces, allowing long-term management contracts and contributing resources.

This paper focuses on understanding the transformative potential of active citizenship in green space governance. Through an in-depth case study, we show how citizens promoted the redevelopment of a brownfield into a green space, but eventually also contributed towards a broader co-creative shift in local governance. In this process, we highlight how a shift in citizens’ activities from contestation towards collaboration led to the uptake of citizen-driven discourses and activities in spatial planning. The social connectivity between governance practices is of key importance in this transformation—successful governance practices that involve active citizens can inspire others. Even so, transformation is often a slow and path-dependent process which also depends on an enabling policy environment. Cooperating with authorities provides citizens with power, but also requires alignment with official rules. Creating and maintaining effective partnerships will remain a challenge for citizens and policymakers that strive for societal transformations.

Nature conservation organizations in various Western countries, including the Netherlands, have noted that racial/ethnic minorities compared to Whites are “underparticipating” in recreation in natural areas and in nature conservation practices. Previous research trying to explain (under-)participation by racial/ethnic minorities in outdoor recreation and nature conservation mainly focused on characteristics of racial/ethnic groups. This study argues that nature conservation organizations themselves—although in all likelihood unintentionally—may play a role in participation of racial/ethnic minorities as well, through their promotional material. A content analysis of 22,974 pictures in magazines and on websites of four large Dutch nature conservation organizations shows that only 3.8% of the depicted people were non-White. Our results indicate that visual imagery of nature conservation organizations, at least in the Netherlands, (re)produces an image of outdoor recreation and nature conservation as being activities almost exclusively performed by Whites.

Understanding people’s way of thought on the natural environment may improve communication and collaboration between professionals and stakeholders from the general public. Focusing on similarities and differences between professionals and the public, this study investigates the relation between people’s way of thought and actual attitudes towards conservation measures. Based on an innovative hybrid of quantitative and qualitative research methods, we show that people’s thoughts on nature and landscape have a specific structure, consisting of clusters of normative (how we value it), experiential (how we experience it emotionally) and descriptive (how we define it) meanings. Although professionals and the public use similar structure of thoughts, the specific content and relevance of these thoughts differ significantly. Professionals referred to normative meanings four times more often than the public. Because analysis showed people’s general thoughts on nature informed concrete attitudes on conservation measures, these results have clear management implications. For example, we found important differences in the preferred conservation focus. Contrary to the professional focus on species, habitats and ecosystem health, the public tended to evaluate conservation measures on their effects on individual animals and trees and their consequences for scenic quality. Results may help practitioners to find common ground for discussing with critical groups in society. Expanding communication from predominantly normative arguments to include also the emotional connotations of nature may contribute to a shared emotional connection with the public that can be a powerful tool to overcome resistance and build shared visions on conservation issues.

Contemporary changes in rural Europe have been characterised by the contrasting terms of rural modernisation and productivism versus restructuring and post-productivism. This study investigates how different categories of owners of farm and/or forestland in 16 case study areas in eight European countries perceive future development. Landowners’ prospects for change are investigated on both the locality and enterprise level. Special attention is given to the role of forestry as a potential future development perspective. The results reveal that both restructuring and modernisation perspectives are important to many landowners. Moreover, a polarisation seems to be developing between a minority of full-time farmers with progressive farming prospects and the vast majority of landowners with declining prospects or little dependency on primary production. More importantly, the research reveals a third employment perspective, which did not have any specific content apart from the social security of having employment opportunities in the locality. Also at the enterprise level, farmers anticipate both restructuring and modernisation practices, even on the very same property. The study proves that it is not only part-time, hobby and retired farmers that are engaged in “restructuring” activities, but also full-time farmers. As regards the role of forests, the majority of landowners do not interpret forests in an economic development context, but as green infrastructure important to the local quality of life. It can be concluded that forests are closely related to restructuring thinking among landowners. Future perspectives differ from one European rural area to another, dependent on local conditions and problems. More importantly, however, this research reveals that modernisation–restructuring thoughts and practices of landowners are manifold and heterogeneous in all types of rural areas across Europe.

Natural environments are the setting for spiritual experiences for people from all over the world. Interpretative phenomenological explorations of such experiences are scarce, even though the method suits the topic. We conducted field interviews with 18 Dutch visitors of a Dutch spiritual festival on how they (1) describe spiritual experiences in natural environments and (2) see the role of different natural attributes in these experiences. Principle descriptive concepts for spiritual experiences were a deeper self and spiritual energy. Aspects of nature facilitating such experiences were wilder sites, open spaces, sacred sites, sites remembered from childhood, old trees, animals, water, and fire, each adding a quality to the experience that resembled its innate properties. Participants agreed on the positive impact of these experiences on their well-being, mentioning different degrees of long-term benefit. Key Words: Connection to nature—Ecotherapy—Interpretative phenomenology—Spiritual experience—Well-being.

The concept of small-scale forest ownership means different things to different people in different countries. Traditionally, within Europe, many small-scale forest owners were economically dependent on their forests, either for home or commercial use, usually linked with farming activities. However, many small-scale forest owners are no longer economically dependent on their forests and these owners appear to increasingly focus their management on amenity functions rather than on production functions. These changes in forest ownership are related to more general trends in rural dynamics. As a result of these dynamics, increasingly rural development is not focused on agricultural modernisation, but on rural restructuring. A description of how forest owners themselves perceive their forests has been made on the basis of a survey amongst 1401 small-scale forest owners in eight European countries. Data were collected on ownership and management characteristics as well as on the perspectives regarding the future of the rural area in which the forests are located. The median forest size varies between 1.3 ha in Greece to 4.5 ha in Spain. About 30% of the forest owners have an indifferent attitude to their forests. This group includes many absentee owners and retired local owners, who own only forest lands but who are not economically dependent on these forests. Almost 40% of the forest owners are only modestly interested in forest management; often they have an environmental management orientation. This group includes many hobby owners and part-time employed people. Only one-third of the private forest owners are still economically dependent on their forests; they have predominantly a multifunctional management orientation. The survey findings suggest that policies to stimulate forestry development should be diversified in respect to these different types of small-scale forest owners.

The Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade programme (FLEGT) of the European Union aims at stimulating both legal timber production and good forest governance. The EU establishes Voluntary Partnership Agreements (VPAs) with individual tropical timber exporting countries; these VPAs should be developed through a stakeholder-inclusive governance process and define national standards for timber legality. The national policy level serves as an interface between the EU policy and the local realities of forest exploitation. This article assesses whether new assemblages of timber legality standards were developed at this interface. It presents the opinions of people actively engaged in the FLEGT/VPA process in Ghana (n = 38) and Indonesia (n = 40) about which principles regarding timber legality, law enforcement and social safeguards were considered during the VPA negotiations in each country. Almost half of the respondents (44%) were positive about the integrative focus of VPA discussions focusing on both forestry and livelihood issues, 40% considered it had mostly a limited focus or traditional timber sector focus, and 16% indicated a high degree of attention to social responsibility issues. There were differences in the characteristics of respondents and their opinions between Ghana and Indonesia; these reflect differences in organisation of the FLEGT/VPA process. The findings demonstrate how depending on country-specific policy processes principles from an international forest policy are adapted at national level; this may involve new assemblages of the original policy principles.

Biocultural diversity is usually associated with traditional ways in which local or indigenous people interact with the natural environment. This chapter deals with biocultural diversity practices in a highly modernised society, the Netherlands. It introduces the concept of ‘biocultural creatives’: groups of people who, driven by an engagement with society and nature, create new cultural models and practices for interaction with biodiversity. Biocultural creativity aims to reconnect people with nature and is sought for in this chapter within the domains of recreation (use of nature) and financial support and volunteer activities (nature protection). Within recreational practices, creativity is found in the application or rejection of technology and the world of fantasy or contemplation; within financial support, creativity is found in traditional economic instruments applied to the world of nature conservation; and within volunteer work, creativity is found through the modernisation of traditional volunteer activities and new styles of citizen governance in the planning, design and management of conservation areas and landscapes. We conclude that although none of the biocultural creative initiatives have been adopted by large groups of Dutch citizens, they are important to the conservation of biodiversity because they re-create a constant awareness of the cultural roots of nature conservation and remind us that these roots link up to the dynamics in society and because they enrich our cultural connectedness with the natural environment. Therefore, we encourage policy-makers and nature managers to see biocultural diversity as an opportunity for the emergence of new perspectives and ideas, which can be meaningful for nature conservation. We also recommend researchers to do further studies into the dynamic and creative aspects of biodiversity that we touch upon in this chapter.

Forest and nature managers are confronted with an increasing number of tourists visiting National Parks, nature reserves and forest areas. Not all tourists, however, have or prefer the same experiences. In this study, we develop a theory on the nature of tourist experiences by proposing tourism as a way of distancing oneself from everyday reality, conceptualised in terms of out-there-ness. Experience is conceived of as conscious awareness, embedded in relatively stable mental structures, and manifested as a dynamic precondition for immediate responses to tourist practices. These preconditions are theoretically translated into different modes of experience, which are empirically tested. The results show that the theoretical modes of the experience of out-there-ness have considerable empirical support. We present these results in relation to practical applicability for policy-making, planning and design.

Ecological restoration efforts often encounter public resistance. Recreational visitors resist imposition of restoration efforts they fear may result in a visually unattractive area. Public support is, however, essential for restoration efforts on public lands. This study seeks insight into hiker perceptions of perceived attractiveness of nature before and after efforts to restore exotic conifer plantations to native communities containing bog and wet forest communities. Visitors (N = 247) to a Dutch National Park sorted 32 photographs depicting landscapes before and after restoration efforts. Findings show that the most attractive landscape types (bog and wet forest communities containing visible water) are results of restoration efforts and the least attractive landscape types (young deciduous and coniferous forest) are representative of traditional nature before restoration. However, the “middle category” consists of landscape types existing both before and after restoration efforts. Visitors value old coniferous and old deciduous forests as much as products of restoration that lack water. These perceptions are unrelated to either visitor characteristics or the provision of information to visitors explaining restoration goals. The continued existence of resistance to restoration strategies despite their effect on perceived landscape attractiveness implies that the experience of nature has more than only visual dimensions. We expect that more acceptable results of restoration efforts will emerge from the active engagement of the public before restoration practices take place in processes that specifically address feelings of attachment and resistance to change

Frame analysis has been widely employed to understand environmental conflicts. Such studies emphasize the internal dynamics of conflict and focus on how actors discursively struggle with each other in order to gain hegemony over the dominant discourse on the issue. In this paper, we argue that the explanatory power of framing theory could be enhanced by relating issue specific frames to the broader cultural context in which framing efforts are situated. In order to investigate the link between the success of framing strategies and the cultural background of such strategies, we suggest rethinking the concept of cultural resonance. We propose social representations theory as a novel way of understanding this cultural resonance of spatial and environmental frames. Based on a dispute over the management of a national park in the Netherlands, we empirically illustrate how contending stakeholders refer to different social representations of nature in the framing of local conflicts. A local protest group proves to be much more in touch with the views of the local community and is thus more successful in its framing of the dispute than the nature conservation agency involved. While the protest group uses a wide range of locally embedded representations of nature to enhance the currency of its framing efforts, the nature conservation agency responsible for the management of the forest refers to a much more limited range of representations. By making references only to the wilderness representation of nature, the cultural resonance of the agency’s framing efforts remains limited to those residents who adhere to this specific representation of nature. Consequently, this framing is not very successful among groups that adhere to other representations of nature, such as aesthetic or inclusive representations. Our analysis shows that combining framing theory with social representations theory enables one to disentangle the framing of environmental disputes from the more constant cultural values and opinions on which this framing is based.

This book provides a Europe-wide overview on the state of the art of management of recreation and nature tourism in forests. It describes the current situation and conflicts in the different regions of Europe and provides solutions illustrated by good practise examples. It addresses traditions, differences and similarities in European forests as well as new tasks, goals and strategies. The final discussion provides a profound insight into future trends regarding forest recreation and nature based tourism.

The aim of this chapter is to draw a cross-European comparison of the differences and similarities of forest recreation and nature tourism. The main results of Chapters 2 –6 will be analysed and discussed in a broad European context. The analysis will be directed at comparing and interpreting similarities and differences between regions and countries.

Despite the growing cultural diversity in many European countries, nature recreation is still a very “white” activity. Immigrants hardly ever visit non-urban green areas. Prior research has suggested that different perceptions of nature and landscape may be related to this limited use. Based on 618 questionnaires, this article investigates to what extent immigrants from Islamic countries and the native Dutch have different images of nature and landscape preferences. Using the concept of images of nature, cultural differences in meanings attached to nature are explored. Three images of nature are described: the wilderness image, the functional image, and the inclusive image. The wilderness image focuses on ecocentric values and the independence of nature; the functional image focuses on anthropocentric values and intensive management and the inclusive image focuses on ecocentric values and an intimate relationship between humans and nature. Native Dutch people are strong supporters of the wilderness image, while immigrants generally support the functional image. In addition, landscape preferences differ significantly between immigrants and native Dutch people. In general, immigrants show lower preferences for non-urban landscapes. Immigrants show especially low preferences for wild and unmanaged landscapes, like marshes and dunes. Multivariate analyses of variance showed that images of nature and immigrant-status are the most powerful predictors of differences in landscape preferences. Age, gender and education have only a small additional predictive power. The practical and theoretical consequences of these findings are discussed.

A major part of the territory of the European Union consists of rural areas, and consequently considerable attention is given to a European policy on rural development. Forestry is increasingly recognised as one of the activities to be considered in such development. However, there are different opinions about how forestry can best contribute to rural development. This is due to both the various meanings attributed to the concepts of rurality and rural development, and the changing perceptions about the precise role of forestry. In the past, most attention was focused on the primary production function of forests in order to stimulate the economic advancement of rural areas. At present, the role of forestry is gradually changing, with increasing attention being given to its ecological and amenity services. This paper explores the different perceptions on the role of forestry by means of a tentative identification of different discourses. First, the different meanings of rurality and rural development are reviewed. Rural areas may be characterised either by empirical, socio-cultural or spatial parameters, or through social representations. Such a social representation can be considered as ‘symbolic shorthand’ for giving meaning to a specific area. It is expressed through discourse. Five ideal, typical discourses on rural development are identified, i.e. the agri-ruralist, the hedonist, the utilitarian, the community sustainability and the nature conservation discourses. Secondly, the perceived role of forestry within each discourse is identified in four different types of rural areas, varying from remote rural areas to areas adjacent to urban agglomerations.

With the aim to embed ecology more forcefully into decision-making, the concept of Ecosystems Services (ES) has gained significant ground amongpolicy-makers and researchers. The increasing recognition of the importance of urban green areas for the quality of life in growing cities has led proponents of ES approaches to argue for an uptake of the approach in urban environmental decision-making. However, the ES approach has been criticized for standing too much at a distance from local communities and their day-to-day practices and for insufficiently taking into account the potential trade-offs between different qualities or preferences. In this paper we argue that other concepts, doing other work, need to be added to the debate about futures of urban governance and research. Biocultural diversity is suggested as one such alternative concept. By its emphasis On diversity, biocultural diversity can account for the many ways in which people live with green areas in the urban landscape, acknowledges the different knowledges this involves, and can reveal conflicts and ambivalence that may be at stake. This sets up for a reflexive, transdisciplinary research process that questions and contextualizes knowledge and worldviews including those of researchers. A reflexive, transdisciplinary research, then, is a productive catalyst for forms of reflexive urban governance that recognise and respond to this diversity and provide platforms for contestation. (C) 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

De waarde van de natuur bestaat voor ecologen vooral uit het behoud van kwetsbare ecosystemen, en zij gebruiken daarbij termen als ‘habitats’ of ‘rode-lijstsoorten’. Deze moeten beschermd of uitgebreid worden en moeten zich autonoom kunnen ontwikkelen. Uit de studie van Buijs blijkt o.a. dat actiegroepen effectiever zijn in het beïnvloeden van de beeldvorming rondom conflicten dan natuurbeheerders

Er is aangetoond dat natuurgebieden bijdragen aan het fysieke en psychische welzijn van mensen. Echter, een te hoge recreatiedruk kan kwetsbare ecosystemen beschadigen en bovendien de beleving van bezoekers nadelig beïnvloeden. Zo is het groeiende aantal bezoekers aan bijvoorbeeld de Nederlandse nationale parken voor beheerders van deze gebieden een belangrijk aandachtspunt. Om natuurgebieden effectief te beheren, kunnen zoneringsplannen een nuttig hulpmiddel zijn. Zoneren is het aanbrengen van een ruimtelijke geleding waardoor gebiedsdelen ontstaan die elk bestemd worden voor verschillende activiteiten, ervaringen of bezoekintensiteiten. De ontwikkeling van zoneringsplannen is echter moeilijk als het inzicht ontbreekt in de precieze vraag naar verschillende recreatievormen, belevingen en huidige gebruiksniveaus. Met het voorgaande als uitgangspunt heeft de huidige studie tot doel om de relatie tussen de omgeving, recreatieve belevingen en het gedrag in een natuurgebied te begrijpen