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Gasification of biomass waste has a significant potential to reduce environmental impact and promote sustainability by producing syngas, which is considered as renewable energy. This work investigated the gasification of macadamia nutshells in air-preheated, batch-fed fluidized bed gasifier. The study conducted a parametric analysis to assess the effect of equivalence ratio (ER) and air temperature on the gasifier temperature profile and its performance based on gas composition, higher heating value (HHV), and gas yield. The research was conducted within the range of 0.15–0.35 for the ER and 25–825 °C for the air temperature. Multi-objective numerical optimization was conducted using response surface methodology (RSM). From the parametric study, a distinct temperature profile was observed along the gasifier height, with the peak temperature near the top of the fluidized bed section and the lowest temperature at the top of the gasifier. Air preheating mostly favored gasification temperature at the lower part of the gasifier and showed rare significance at the top. No improvement in gasifier performance was observed beyond an air temperature of 620 °C, which was identified as the ideal air-preheating temperature. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed that the ER was the most influential parameter in the production of combustible gasses, syngas HHV and gas yield. Air preheating did not have a significant effect on methane production and gas yield. The most optimal values for ER and air temperature were obtained as 0.195 °C and 620 °C, respectively, producing optimal values of 9.54, 14.65%, 2.03, 4.02 MJ·Nm−3, and 1.82 Nm3·kg−1 for hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, HHV, and gas yield, respectively.

Biodiesel has several environmental benefits, such as biodegradability, renewability and lower soot emissions. However, biodiesel has undesirable properties such as higher viscosity and density and low calorific value compared to petroleum diesel, resulting in high Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC), reduced Brake Power (BP) and increased NOX emissions creating an environmental concerns in biodiesel development. This study investigated the effects of synthesizing transesterification catalysts (CaO and NaOH) with Citric Acid (CA) on the quality of biodiesel and biodiesel blends produced from Black Soldier Fly Larvae (BSFL) (Hermetia Illucens). The quality of biodiesel and blends was determined based on fuel properties, engine performance and emission composition characteristics. The tests were performed on a single-cylinder, four-stroke, Compression Ignition (CI) diesel engine at five loads at a constant speed of 1500 rpm. The results showed that synthesizing the catalysts with CA significantly affected the fatty acid profile of the biodiesel compared to physical fuel properties. B100 (pure BSFL biodiesel) exhibited higher BSFC by 10.57–13.97 % and lower BP by 4.21–7.83 % than diesel fuel. However, the Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE) of biodiesel was higher than that of diesel fuel by 0.82–4.34 % at maximum load. Synthesizing catalysts with CA improved the viscosity of biodiesel by 0.93–2.81 % and effectively reduced NOX, HC and Smoke opacity by 2.23–3.16 %, 4.95–5.83 % and 20.51–41.15 %, respectively.

In biodegradable waste management, use of Black Soldier Fly Larvae (BSFL) is a promising method for bioconversion of waste into crude insect fat as feedstock for biodiesel production. Biodiesel is a renewable alternative to fossil fuel, but it is more susceptible to oxidative degradation over long-term storage. This study investigates the effectiveness of NaOH and CaO catalysts synthesized with citric acid (CA) in improving the oxidative stability of biodiesel. The biodiesel and biodiesel/diesel blends derived from BSFL were stored at 63 °C for 8 days. The quality of biodiesel was determined by analysis of the physicochemical and fuel properties by: Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, ultraviolet visible spectrophotometer (UV-Vis), gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS), bomb calorimeter and titration methods. Properties that were analyzed included: peroxide value, acid value, iodine value, refractive index, density, calorific value, total oxidation (TOTOX), anisidine value and fatty acid profile. The results showed that catalysts synthesized with CA retarded the decomposition of unsaturated fatty acids, resulting in a significant delay in the formation of hydroperoxides. Besides, 10-oxo-octadecanoic acid, an antioxidant, was present in biodiesel produced using catalysts synthesized with CA, hence enhancing the stability of biodiesel against oxidation. Catalysts synthesized with CA slowed the decomposition of monounsaturated fatty acids by 6.11–11.25%. Overall, biodiesel produced using catalysts synthesized with CA was observed to degrade at a slower rate than biodiesel produced using commercial calcium oxide. The reduced degradation rates demonstrate the effectiveness of the synthesized catalysts in enhancing the oxidation stability and consequently the fuel qualities of biodiesel from BSFL under accelerated storage.

Current research and development to lower the production cost of biodiesel by utilizing feedstock derived from waste motivates the quest for developing catalysts with high performance in transesterification. This study investigates the performance of citric acid as a catalyst and support catalyst in transesterification of oil from black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae fed on organic kitchen waste. Two catalysts were prepared by synthesizing citric acid with NaOH and CaO by a co-precipitation and an impregnation method, respectively. The design of the experiment adopted response surface methodology for the optimization of biodiesel productivity by varying: the percentage loading weight of citric acid, the impregnation temperature, the calcinating temperature and the calcinating time. The characteristic activity and reuse of the synthesized catalysts in transesterification reactions were investigated. The morphology, chemical composition and structure of the catalysts were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). High citric acid loading on NaOH and a small amount of citric acid on CaO resulted in improved dispersion and refinement of the particle sizes. Increasing citric acid loading on NaOH improved the CaO and SiO2 composition of the modified catalyst resulting in higher biodiesel yield compared to the modified CaO catalyst. A maximum biodiesel yield of 93.08%, ±1.31, was obtained when NaOH was synthesized with a 130% weight of citric acid at 80 °C and calcinated at 600 °C for 240 min. Comparatively, a maximum biodiesel yield of 90.35%, ±1.99, was obtained when CaO was synthesized with a 3% weight of citric acid, impregnated at 140 °C and calcinated at 900 °C for 240 min. The two modified catalysts could be recycled four times while maintaining a biodiesel yield of more than 70%.

We forecast constraints on cosmological parameters enabled by three surveys conducted with SPT-3G, the third-generation camera on the South Pole Telescope. The surveys cover separate regions of 1500, 2650, and 6000 deg2 to different depths, in total observing 25% of the sky. These regions will be measured to white noise levels of roughly 2.5, 9, and 12 μ K -armin, respectively, in cosmic microwave background (CMB) temperature units at 150 GHz by the end of 2024. The survey also includes measurements at 95 and 220 GHz, which have noise levels a factor of ∼1.2 and 3.5 times higher than 150 GHz, respectively, with each band having a polarization noise level ∼ 2 times higher than the temperature noise. We use a novel approach to obtain the covariance matrices for jointly and optimally estimated gravitational lensing potential band powers and unlensed CMB temperature and polarization band powers. We demonstrate the ability to test the ΛCDM model via the consistency of cosmological parameters constrained independently from SPT-3G and Planck data, and consider the improvement in constraints on ΛCDM extension parameters from a joint analysis of SPT-3G and Planck data. The ΛCDM cosmological parameters are typically constrained with uncertainties up to ∼2 times smaller with SPT-3G data, compared to Planck, with the two data sets measuring significantly different angular scales and polarization levels, providing additional tests of the standard cosmological model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a flare star catalog from 4 yr of nontargeted millimeter-wave survey data from the South Pole Telescope (SPT). The data were taken with the SPT-3G camera and cover a 1500 deg2 region of the sky from 20h40m0s to 3h20m0s in right ascension and from −42° to −70° in declination. This region was observed on a nearly daily cadence from 2019 to 2022 and chosen to avoid the plane of the galaxy. A short-duration transient search of this survey yields 111 flaring events from 66 stars, increasing the number of both flaring events and detected flare stars by an order of magnitude from the previous SPT-3G data release. We provide cross-matching to Gaia DR3, as well as matches to X-ray point sources found in the second ROSAT all-sky survey. We have detected flaring stars across the main sequence, from early-type A stars to M dwarfs, as well as a large population of evolved stars. These stars are mostly nearby, spanning 10–1000 pc in distance. Most of the flare spectral indices are constant or gently rising as a function of frequency at 95/150/220 GHz. The timescale of these events can range from minutes to hours, and the peak ν L ν luminosities range from 1027 to 1031 erg s−1 in the SPT-3G frequency bands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present an extension to a Sunyaev–Zel'dovich Effect (SZE) selected cluster catalogue based on observations from the South Pole Telescope (SPT); this catalogue extends to lower signal to noise than the previous SPT–SZ catalogue and therefore includes lower mass clusters. Optically derived redshifts, centres, richnesses, and morphological parameters together with catalogue contamination and completeness statistics are extracted using the multicomponent matched filter (MCMF) algorithm applied to the S/N > 4 SPT–SZ candidate list and the Dark Energy Survey (DES) photometric galaxy catalogue. The main catalogue contains 811 sources above S/N = 4, has 91  per cent purity, and is 95 per cent complete with respect to the original SZE selection. It contains in total 50 per cent more clusters and twice as many clusters above z  = 0.8 in comparison to the original SPT-SZ sample. The MCMF algorithm allows us to define subsamples of the desired purity with traceable impact on catalogue completeness. As an example, we provide two subsamples with S/N > 4.25 and S/N > 4.5 for which the sample contamination and cleaning-induced incompleteness are both as low as the expected Poisson noise for samples of their size. The subsample with S/N > 4.5 has 98 per cent purity and 96 per cent completeness and is part of our new combined SPT cluster and DES weak-lensing cosmological analysis. We measure the number of false detections in the SPT-SZ candidate list as function of S/N, finding that it follows that expected from assuming Gaussian noise, but with a lower amplitude compared to previous estimates from simulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: This study explored the role of demographic, psychosocial, stress and life event-related risk factors for psychopathology and challenging behaviour in a clinical sample of adults with Down syndrome. Method: A convenience sample of adults with Down syndrome seen through a specialised clinic was assessed through interviews and questionnaires specifically designed for use in people with intellectual disabilities. Results: Recent negative life events and stressors were significantly correlated with mental and behavioural health, and significantly predicted irritability, lethargy and depressed mood. Social avoidance was predicted by stress related to anticipation and social-environmental stressors, and negatively predicted by verbal ability. Ritual-related stress predicted obsessive-compulsive behaviour. Participants who did not have a job or vocational placement were significantly more depressed than participants who did. Conclusions: Adults with Down syndrome should be provided increased supports for coping with negative life events and stressors. Interventions should also emphasise community engagement, such as employment, and access to psychosocial supports that teach coping and self-regulation skills when faced with stressors and negative life events.

Abstract Background Baseline information that is essential for determining the areas to target with larval control includes estimates of vector diversity and larval habitat preferences. Due to a lack of such information in Baringo County, Kenya, this study assessed species diversity and larval habitat preference of potential mosquito vectors of Rift Valley fever (RVF) and malaria. Methods Mosquito larvae were sampled from nine types of larval habitats and were identified morphologically. Species diversity was estimated by the Shannon’s diversity index while larval habitat preference by RVF and malaria vectors was determined by ANOVA. Results A total of 7724 immature mosquitoes comprising 17 species belonging to four genera, namely Anopheles, Culex, Aedes and Mansonia, were identified. Among the 17 species, three Anopheles species are responsible for malaria transmission: An. gambiae (s.l.), An. funestus (s.l.) and An. pharoensis. Rift Valley fever vectors included Mansonia spp. and Culex spp. The highest Shannon's diversity index was observed during the cold dry season (H = 2.487) and in the highland zone (H = 2.539) while the lowest diversity was recorded during the long rain season (H = 2.354) and in the riverine zone (H = 2.085). Ditches had the highest mean number of Anopheles larvae (16.6 larvae per sample) followed by swamp (12.4) and seasonal riverbed (10.7). Water pit and water pan had low mean numbers of Anopheles larvae (1.4 and 1.8, respectively) but relatively high mean numbers of culicines (16.9 and 13.7, respectively). Concrete tank was the least sampled type of habitat but had highest mean number of culicine larvae (333.7 l) followed distantly by water spring (38.9) and swamp (23.5). Overall, larval habitats were significantly different in terms of larval density (F (8,334) = 2.090, P = 0.036). Conclusions To our knowledge, the present study reports culicine larval species diversity in Baringo for the first time and the most preferred habitats were concrete tanks, water springs and swamps. Habitats preferred by Anopheles were mainly riverbed pools, ditches and swamps. Environmental management targeting the habitats most preferred by potential vectors can be part of integrated vector control in Baringo, especially during dry seasons.

Abstract Background The decline in global malaria cases is attributed to intensified utilization of primary vector control interventions and artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs). These strategies are inadequate in many rural areas, thus adopting locally appropriate integrated malaria control strategies is imperative in these heterogeneous settings. This study aimed at investigating trends and local knowledge on malaria and to develop a framework for malaria control for communities in Baringo, Kenya. Methods Clinical malaria cases obtained from four health facilities in the riverine and lowland zones were used to analyse malaria trends for the 2005–2014 period. A mixed method approach integrating eight focus group discussions, 12 key informant interviews, 300 survey questionnaires and two stakeholders’ consultative forums were used to assess local knowledge on malaria risk and develop a framework for malaria reduction. Results Malaria cases increased significantly during the 2005–2014 period (tau = 0.352; p

We search for signatures of cosmological shocks in gas pressure profiles of galaxy clusters using the cluster catalogues from three surveys: the Dark Energy Survey (DES) Year 3, the South Pole Telescope (SPT) SZ survey, and the Atacama Cosmology Telescope (ACT) data releases 4, 5, and 6, and using thermal Sunyaev–Zeldovich (SZ) maps from SPT and ACT. The combined cluster sample contains around 105 clusters with mass and redshift ranges |$10^{13.7} \lt M_{\rm 200m}/\, {\rm M}_\odot \lt 10^{15.5}$| and 0.1 < z < 2, and the total sky coverage of the maps is |$\approx 15\, 000 \deg ^2$|⁠. We find a clear pressure deficit at R / R 200m ≈ 1.1 in SZ profiles around both ACT and SPT clusters, estimated at 6σ significance, which is qualitatively consistent with a shock-induced thermal non-equilibrium between electrons and ions. The feature is not as clearly determined in profiles around DES clusters. We verify that measurements using SPT or ACT maps are consistent across all scales, including in the deficit feature. The SZ profiles of optically selected and SZ-selected clusters are also consistent for higher mass clusters. Those of less massive, optically selected clusters are suppressed on small scales by factors of 2–5 compared to predictions, and we discuss possible interpretations of this behaviour. An oriented stacking of clusters – where the orientation is inferred from the SZ image, the brightest cluster galaxy, or the surrounding large-scale structure measured using galaxy catalogues – shows the normalization of the one-halo and two-halo terms vary with orientation. Finally, the location of the pressure deficit feature is statistically consistent with existing estimates of the splashback radius. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Malaria transmission in arid and semi-arid regions of Kenya such as Baringo County, is seasonal and often influenced by climatic factors. Unravelling the relationship between climate variables and malaria transmission dynamics is therefore instrumental in developing effective malaria control strategies. The main aim of this study was to describe the effects of variability of rainfall, maximum temperature and vegetation indices on seasonal trends of malaria in selected health facilities within Baringo County, Kenya. Methods Climate variables sourced from the International Research Institute (IRI)/Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory (LDEO) climate database and malaria cases reported in 10 health facilities spread across four ecological zones (riverine, lowland, mid-altitude and highland) between 2004 and 2014 were subjected to a time series analysis. A negative binomial regression model with lagged climate variables was used to model long-term monthly malaria cases. The seasonal Mann–Kendall trend test was then used to detect overall monotonic trends in malaria cases. Results Malaria cases increased significantly in the highland and midland zones over the study period. Changes in malaria prevalence corresponded to variations in rainfall and maximum temperature. Rainfall at a time lag of 2 months resulted in an increase in malaria transmission across the four zones while an increase in temperature at time lags of 0 and 1 month resulted in an increase in malaria cases in the riverine and highland zones, respectively. Conclusion Given the existence of a time lag between climatic variables more so rainfall and peak malaria transmission, appropriate control measures can be initiated at the onset of short and after long rains seasons.

Background: Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a vector-borne zoonotic disease that has an impact on human health and animal productivity. Here, we explore the use of vector presence modelling to predict the distribution of RVF vector species under climate change scenario to demonstrate the potential for geographic spread of Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV). Objectives: To evaluate the effect of climate change on RVF vector distribution in Baringo County, Kenya, with an aim of developing a risk map for spatial prediction of RVF outbreaks. Methodology: The study used data on vector presence and ecological niche modelling (MaxEnt) algorithm to predict the effect of climatic change on habitat suitability and the spatial distribution of RVF vectors in Baringo County. Data on species occurrence were obtained from longitudinal sampling of adult mosquitoes and larvae in the study area. We used present (2000) and future (2050) Bioclim climate databases to model the vector distribution. Results: Model results predicted potential suitable areas with high success rates for Culex quinquefasciatus, Culex univitattus, Mansonia africana, and Mansonia uniformis. Under the present climatic conditions, the lowlands were found to be highly suitable for all the species. Future climatic conditions indicate an increase in the spatial distribution of Cx. quinquefasciatus and M. africana. Model performance was statistically significant. Conclusion: Soil types, precipitation in the driest quarter, precipitation seasonality, and isothermality showed the highest predictive potential for the four species.

The global increase in vector borne diseases has been linked to climate change. Seasonal vegetation changes are known to influence disease vector population. However, the relationship is more theoretical than quantitatively defined. There is a growing demand for understanding and prediction of climate sensitive vector borne disease risks especially in regions where meteorological data are lacking. This study aimed at analyzing and quantitatively assessing the seasonal and year-to-year association between climatic factors (rainfall and temperature) and vegetation cover, and its implications for malaria risks in Baringo County, Kenya. Remotely sensed temperature, rainfall, and vegetation data for the period 2004-2015 were used. Poisson regression was used to model the association between malaria cases and climatic and environmental factors for the period 2009-2012, this being the period for which all datasets overlapped. A strong positive relationship was observed between the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and monthly total precipitation. There was a strong negative relationship between NDVI and minimum temperature. The total monthly rainfall (between 94 -181mm), average monthly minimum temperatures (between 16-21°C) and mean monthly NDVI values lower than 0.35 were significantly associated with malaria incidence rates. Results suggests that a combination of climatic and vegetation greenness thresholds need to be met for malaria incidence to be significantly increased in the county. Planning for malaria control can therefore be enhanced by incorporating these factors in malaria risk mapping.

Malaria, a major cause of morbidity and mortality, is the most prevalent vector borne disease in Baringo County; a region which has varied house designs in arid and semi-arid areas. This study investigated the association between house structures and indoor-malaria vector abundance in Baringo County. The density of malaria vectors in houses with open eaves was higher than that for houses with closed eaves. Grass thatched roof houses had higher density of malaria vectors than corrugated iron sheet roofs. Similarly, mud walled houses had higher vector density than other wall types. Houses in the riverine zone were significantly associated with malaria vector abundance (p

We cross-correlate positions of galaxies measured in data from the first three years of the Dark Energy Survey with Compton- y maps generated using data from the South Pole Telescope (SPT) and the Planck mission. We model this cross-correlation measurement together with the galaxy autocorrelation to constrain the distribution of gas in the Universe. We measure the hydrostatic mass bias or, equivalently, the mean halo bias-weighted electron pressure 〈 bh Pe 〉, using large-scale information. We find 〈 bh Pe 〉 to be |$[0.16^{+0.03}_{-0.04},0.28^{+0.04}_{-0.05},0.45^{+0.06}_{-0.10},0.54^{+0.08}_{-0.07},0.61^{+0.08}_{-0.06},0.63^{+0.07}_{-0.08}]$| meV cm−3 at redshifts z ∼ [0.30, 0.46, 0.62, 0.77, 0.89, 0.97]. These values are consistent with previous work where measurements exist in the redshift range. We also constrain the mean gas profile using small-scale information, enabled by the high-resolution of the SPT data. We compare our measurements to different parametrized profiles based on the cosmo-OWLS hydrodynamical simulations. We find that our data are consistent with the simulation that assumes an AGN heating temperature of 108.5 K but are incompatible with the model that assumes an AGN heating temperature of 108.0 K. These comparisons indicate that the data prefer a higher value of electron pressure than the simulations within r 500 c of the galaxies' haloes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Early exposure to embedded computing systems is crucial for students to be prepared for the embedded computing demands of today's world. However, exposure to systems knowledge often comes too late in the curriculum to stimulate students' interests and to provide a meaningful difference in how they direct their choice of electives for future education and careers. This paper describes an experience with integrating embedded computing systems education into high school and early undergraduate curricula to give students that needed early exposure. It provides assessment data that illustrates the success and limitations of the efforts described as well as the lessons they hold for a reform of the undergraduate curriculum and its impact on high school education. (Contains 3 figures.)

Background: The theories supporting cognitive treatment for depression among individuals with intellectual disability (ID) have not been formally tested with this population. The current study evaluated Becks cognitive theory of depression to determine its appropriateness for adults with ID. Methods: Forty-eight adults with primarily mild or moderate ID participated in semi-structured interviews, twice approximately 16 weeks apart, as did an additional 12 adults diagnosed with depression. Participants reported on depressed mood, the cognitive triad, as measured by views of the self, the world and the future, hopelessness and self-esteem. Results: The Cognitive Triad Inventory for Children (CTI-C) displayed adequate psychometric properties in this sample. In addition, it was correlated with depressed mood, and individuals diagnosed with depression had significantly higher scores on the CTI-C than those with no psychiatric diagnoses. Contrary to hypotheses, a negative cognitive triad did not predict depressed mood 4 months later, but the inverse relationship where depressed mood predicted a later negative cognitive triad approached statistical significance. Conclusions: The findings indicate that the cognitive triad can be measured among individuals with mild or moderate ID and is related to depression and depressed mood. However, the role of the cognitive triad in the development of depression is still unknown. The findings provide some support for Becks cognitive theory of depression among individuals with ID and provide suggestions for further testing the theory. Implications for the treatment of depression among individuals with ID are discussed.

Background: Life events have consistently been found to be associated with behaviour problems and depression among individuals with intellectual disability (ID). However, prior findings have typically been based on correlational or retrospective analyses of case files. The current study attempted to replicate prior findings from life events with concurrent data and extend them to the prospective prediction of behaviour problems and depression. The influence of impact ratings of life events was also explored. Methods: Seventy-four informants rated 104 adults with ID on measures of life events, behaviour problems and depressive symptoms. Life events were rated as having either a positive, negative or no impact on the life of the individual with ID. Measures were completed twice, at a 4-month interval. Results: Behaviour problems were both correlated with and predicted by frequency counts of life events and life events perceived as negative. However, the predictive ability depended on which measure of problem behaviour was selected. Positive life events were not associated with concurrent behaviour problems. Depressive symptoms were correlated with all life changes, but only predicted by frequency counts of life events and life events perceived as negative. Again, the predictive ability depended on which measure of depression was selected. Findings were corroborated with a group of individuals with clinical diagnoses of major depression. Conclusions: Frequency counts of all life events and life events perceived as negative play a role in the development of behaviour problems and depressive symptoms among adults with ID. The results have implications for interventions for behaviour problems following a life event, and for reducing depressive symptoms for adults with mild ID.

Background Cognitive theory forms the foundation for cognitive therapy. There has been little research on cognitive theories and cognitive variables associated with depression in individuals with intellectual disability (ID). The current study examined cognitive variables of automatic thoughts, cognitive triad, hopelessness, attributions and self-esteem associated with two cognitive theories of depression: Beck's Cognitive Triad theory and the Hopelessness theory of depression. Methods Seventy-three adults with ID screened for adequate receptive vocabulary were interviewed as part of a larger study. They reported on cognitive constructs relating to depressed mood. In addition, comparisons were made between 12 adults with ID and diagnosed major depression and a matched group of 12 adults with ID and no psychiatric diagnoses in order to determine if these groups differed on the cognitive constructs associated with the two cognitive theories of depression. Results The cognitive variables examined were all significantly correlated with depressed mood in the direction predicted by their respective cognitive theory. Internal consistencies were good or excellent for most instruments, with the exception of those measuring hopelessness and attributions. In addition, significant differences were obtained between groups of individuals with and without co-morbid major depression on all variables except for hopelessness. Conclusions The results indicate that adults with ID screened for adequate receptive vocabulary are capable of reporting on subjective feelings of depressed mood and associated cognition constructs. The instruments used may be suitable for this population as they generally possessed sound internal consistencies. The results support the further examination of cognitive theories of depression among individuals with ID in order to assess the appropriateness of cognitive therapies for this population. Discrepant findings regarding hopelessness are discussed.