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The Mastcam-Z radiometric calibration targets mounted on the NASA's Perseverance rover proved to be effective in the calibration of Mastcam-Z images to reflectance (I/F) over the first 350 sols on Mars. Mastcam-Z imaged the calibration targets regularly to perform reflectance calibration on multispectral image sets of targets on the Martian surface. For each calibration target image, mean radiance values were extracted for 41 distinct regions of the targets, including patches of color and grayscale materials. Eight strong permanent magnets, placed under the primary target, attracted magnetic dust and repelled it from central surfaces, allowing the extraction of radiance values from eight regions relatively clean from dust. These radiances were combined with reflectances obtained from laboratory measurements, a one-term linear fit model was applied, and the slopes of the fits were retrieved as estimates of the solar irradiance and used to convert Mastcam-Z images from radiance to reflectance. Derived irradiance time series are smoothly varying in line with expectations based on the changing Mars-Sun distance, being only perturbed by a few significant dust events. The deposition of dust on the calibration targets was largely concentrated on the magnets, ensuring a minimal influence of dust on the calibration process. The fraction of sunlight directly hitting the calibration targets was negatively correlated with the atmospheric optical depth, as expected. Further investigation will aim at explaining the origin of a small offset observed in the fit model employed for calibration, and the causes of a yellowing effect affecting one of the calibration targets materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Author(s): R. Sullivan (corresponding author) [1]; D. Banfield [1]; J. F. Bell, III [1]; W. Calvin [2]; D. Fike [3]; M. Golombek [4]; R. Greeley [5]; J. Grotzinger [3]; K. [...]

Author(s): M. P. Golombek (corresponding author) [1]; R. E. Arvidson [2]; J. F. Bell, III [3]; P. R. Christensen [4]; J. A. Crisp [1]; L. S. Crumpler [5]; B. L. [...]

Author(s): J. Veverka (corresponding author) [1]; B. Farquhar [2]; M. Robinson [3]; P. Thomas [1]; S. Murchie [2]; A. Harch [1]; P. G. Antreasian [4]; S. R. Chesley [4]; J. [...]

Author(s): J. F. Bell, III (corresponding author) [1]; M. T. Lemmon [2]; T. C. Duxbury [3]; M. Y. H. Hubbard [1]; M. J. Wolff [4]; S. W. Squyres [1]; L. [...]

Author(s): S. W. Squyres (corresponding author) [1]; O. Aharonson [2]; R. E. Arvidson [3]; J. F. Bell, III [1]; P. R. Christensen [4]; B. C. Clark [5]; J. A. Crisp [...]

Panoramic Camera (Pancam) images from Meridiani Planum reveal a low-albedo, generally flat, and relatively rock-free surface. Within and around impact craters and fractures, laminated outcrop rocks with higher albedo are observed. Fine-grained materials include dark sand, bright ferric iron-rich dust, angular rock clasts, and millimeter-size spheroidal granules that are eroding out of the laminated rocks. Spectra of sand, clasts, and one dark plains rock are consistent with mafic silicates such as pyroxene and olivine. Spectra of both the spherules and the laminated outcrop materials indicate the presence of crystalline ferric oxides or oxyhydroxides. Atmospheric observations show a steady decline in dust opacity during the mission. Astronomical observations captured solar transits by Phobos and Deimos and timelapse observations of sunsets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Panoramic Camera images at Gusev crater reveal a rock-strewn surface interspersed with high- to moderate-albedo fine-grained deposits occurring in part as drifts or in small circular swales or hollows. Optically thick coatings of fine-grained ferric iron-rich dust dominate most bright soil and rock surfaces. Spectra of some darker rock surfaces and rock regions exposed by brushing or grinding show near-infrared spectral signatures consistent with the presence of mafic silicates such as pyroxene or olivine. Atmospheric observations show a steady decline in dust opacity during the mission, and astronomical observations captured solar transits by the martian moons, Phobos and Deimos, as well as a view of Earth from the martian surface. . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recalibrated and geometrically registered multispectral images from the Imager for Mars Pathfinder (IMP) were analyzed using Spectral Mixture Analysis (SMA) and related techniques. SMA models a multispectral image scene as a linear combination of endmember spectra, and anomalous materials which do not fit the model are detected as model residuals. While most of the IMP data studied here are modeled generally well using “Bright Dust,” “Gray Rock,” and “Shade” image endmembers, additional anomalous materials were detected through careful analysis of root mean square (RMS) error images resulting from SMA. For example, analysis of SMA fraction and RMS images indicates spectral differences within a previously monolithologic Dark Soil class. A type of Dark Soil that has high fractional abundances in rock fraction images (Gray Rock Soil) was identified. Other anomalous materials identified included a previously noted “Black Rock” lithology, a class of possibly indurated, compacted, or partially cemented soils (“Intermediate Soil”), and a unit referred to as “Anomalous Patches” on at least one rock. The Black Rock lithology has a strong 900–1000-nm absorption, and modeling of the derived image endmembers using a laboratory reference endmember modeling (REM) approach produced best-fit model spectra that are most consistent with the presence of high-Ca pyroxenes and/or olivine, crystalline ferric oxide minerals, or mixtures of these materials as important components of the Black Rock endmember. More unique mineralogic identifications could not be obtained using our initial REM analyses. Both Intermediate Soil and Anomalous Patches units exhibit a relatively narrow 860–950-nm absorption that is consistent with the presence of either low-Ca pyroxenes or a cementing crystalline ferric oxide mineral. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

From February 13 to May 13, 2000, the near-infrared spectrometer (NIS) instrument on the Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) spacecraft obtained more than 200,000 spatially resolved 800- to 2500-nm reflectance spectra of the S-type asteroid 433 Eros. An important subset of the spectra was obtained during a unique opportunity on February 13 and 14, when the NEAR spacecraft flew directly through the 0° phase angle point between Eros and the Sun just prior to the orbital insertion maneuver. This low phase flyby (LPF) dataset consists of ∼2000 spectra of the northern hemisphere of Eros, obtained from 1° to 47° phase angle and at spatial resolutions of between 6×12 km to 1.25×2.50 km per spectrum. The spectra were calibrated to radiance factor (I/F, where I=observed radiance and πF=solar input radiance) and then photometrically corrected to normal albedo. The average northern hemisphere spectrum of Eros is similar to the asteroid''s unresolved telescopic spectrum and exhibits absorption features near 1000 nm (Band I) and 2000 nm (Band II) consistent with an orthopyroxene to orthopyroxene+olivine (opx+ol) mixing ratio of approximately 0.38±0.08. The ensemble of NIS LPF spectra falls primarily within the S(IV) to upper S(III) fields of the Gaffey et al. (1993) S-asteroid classification scheme and exhibits Band I and Band II properties similar to those of ordinary chondrite meteorites. While some small spatially coherent spectral variations have been detected, neither the opx/opx+ol) mixing ratio nor other spectral parameters vary spatially by more than ∼1σ across the entire northern hemisphere of the asteroid, suggesting a remarkable homogeneity of the composition and mineralogy of the uppermost regolith. Spectral mixture modeling suggests that the presence of glass and/or a reddening agent like nanophase iron, likely formed from exposure of the regolith to the space environment, is a component of the surface of Eros. Reddening and darkening components could also explain the dissimilarity in overall spectral slope and albedo between Eros and other S(IV) asteroids and ordinary chondrite meteorites. The largest (but still weak) spectral variations across the surface are seen in the depths of Band I and Band II, which are greatest in and around the largest craters and at the 0° longitude “nose” of the asteroid, and in the Band II/Band I area ratio between the large impact craters Psyche and Himeros. These subtle NIS spectral variations are usually associated with albedo and surface slope variations seen in NEAR imaging and topographic data and appear to be related to downslope movement of regolith materials. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Presents research which studied images returned by the Imager for Mars Pathfinder (IMP). Details of Mars' surface; Spectral signatures; Thin, bluish clouds; Haze particles; Water vapor column abundance.

Sedimentary rocks examined by the Curiosity rover at Yellowknife Bay, Mars, were derived from sources that evolved from an approximately average martian crustal composition to one influenced by alkaline basalts. No evidence of chemical weathering is preserved, indicating arid, possibly cold, paleoclimates and rapid erosion and deposition. The absence of predicted geochemical variations indicates that magnetite and phyllosilicates formed by diagenesis under low-temperature, circumneutral pH, rock-dominated aqueous conditions. Analyses of diagenetic features (including concretions, raised ridges, and fractures) at high spatial resolution indicate that they are composed of iron- and halogen-rich components, magnesium-iron-chlorine-rich components, and hydrated calcium sulfates, respectively. Composition of a cross-cutting dike-like feature is consistent with sedimentary intrusion. The geochemistry of these sedimentary rocks provides further evidence for diverse depositional and diagenetic sedimentary environments during the early history of Mars. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Opportunity has investigated in detail rocks on the rim of the Noachian age Endeavour crater, where orbital spectral reflectance signatures indicate the presence of Fe+3-rich smectites. The signatures are associated with fine-grained, layered rocks containing spherules of diagenetic or impact origin. The layered rocks are overlain by breccias, and both units are cut by calcium sulfate veins precipitated from fluids that circulated after the Endeavour impact. Compositional data for fractures in the layered rocks suggest formation of Al-rich smectites by aqueous leaching. Evidence is thus preserved for water-rock interactions before and after the impact, with aqueous environments of slightly acidic to circum-neutral pH that would have been more favorable for prebiotic chemistry and microorganisms than those recorded by younger sulfate-rich rocks at Meridiani Planum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses observations of the rim of a large ancient impact crater on the planet Mars, called Endeavour Crater, by the Mars exploration rover Opportunity. Data analyses showed the presence of basaltic breccias, which were produced by the impact to form the rim deposits, and stratigraphy similar to that observed at similar-sized craters on Earth. Also observed were highly localized zinc enrichments in some breccia materials, which suggests hydrothermal alteration of rim deposits, and gypsum-rich veins cut into sedimentary rocks adjacent to the crater rim, which is thought to be caused by the result of gypsum precipitated from low-temperature aqueous fluids flowing upward from the ancient materials of the rim.

The Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity has investigated the Landing site in Eagle crater and the nearby plains within Meridiani Planum. The soils consist of fine-grained basaltic sand and a surface lag of hematite-rich spherules, spherule fragments, and other granules. Wind ripples are common. Underlying the thin soil layer, and exposed within small impact craters and troughs, are flat-lying sedimentary rocks. These rocks are finely laminated, are rich in sulfur, and contain abundant sulfate salts. Small-scale cross-lamination in some locations provides evidence for deposition in flowing liquid water. We interpret the rocks to be a mixture of chemical and siliciclastic sediments formed by episodic inundation by shallow surface water, followed by evaporation, exposure, and desiccation. Hematite-rich spherules are embedded in the rock and eroding from them. We interpret these spherules to be concretions formed by postdepositional diagenesis, again involving liquid water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Spirit landing site in Gusev Crater on Mars contains dark, fine-grained, vesicular rocks interpreted as lavas. Pancam and Mini-Thermal Emission Spectrometer (Mini-TES) spectra suggest that all of these rocks are similar but have variable coatings and dust mantles. Magnified images of brushed and abraded rock surfaces show alteration rinds and veins. Rock interiors contain <25% megacrysts. Chemical analyses of rocks by the Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer are consistent with picritic basalts, containing normative olivine, pyroxenes, plagioclase, and accessory FeTi oxides. Mössbauer, Pancam, and MiniTES spectra confirm the presence of olivine, magnetite, and probably pyroxene. These basalts extend the known range of rock compositions composing the martian crust. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Mars Exploration Rover Spirit has traversed a fairly flat, rock-strewn terrain whose surface is shaped primarily by impact events, although some of the landscape has been altered by eolian processes. Impacts ejected basaltic rocks that probably were part of locally formed lava flows from at least 10 meters depth. Some rocks have been textured and/or partially buried by windblown sediments less than 2 millimeters in diameter that concentrate within shallow, partially filled, circular impact depressions referred to as hollows. The terrain traversed during the 90-sol (martian solar day) nominal mission shows no evidence for an ancient lake in Gusev crater. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Mars Exploration Rover Spirit and its Athena science payload have been used to investigate a landing site in Gusev crater. Gusev is hypothesized to be the site of a former lake, but no clear evidence for lacustrine sedimentation has been found to date. Instead, the dominant lithology is basalt, and the dominant geologic processes are impact events and eolian transport. Many rocks exhibit coatings and other characteristics that may be evidence for minor aqueous alteration. Any lacustrine sediments that may exist at this location within Gusev apparently have been buried by lavas that have undergone subsequent impact disruption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present near-infrared spectrometer (NIS) observations (0.8 to 2.4 μm) of the S-type asteroid 433 Eros obtained by the NEAR Shoemaker spacecraft and report results of our Hapke photometric model analysis of data obtained at phase angles ranging from 1.2° to 111.0° and at spatial resolutions of 1.25×2.5 to 2.75×5.5 km/spectrum. Our Hapke model fits successfully to the NEAR spectroscopic data for systematic color variations that accompany changing viewing and illumination geometry. Model parameters imply a geometric albedo at 0.946 μm of 0.27±0.04, which corresponds to a geometric albedo at 0.550 μm of 0.25±0.05. We find that Eros exhibits phase reddening of up to 10% across the phase angle range of 0–100°. We observe a 10% increase in the 1-μm band depth at high phase angles. In contrast, we observe only a 5% increase in continuum slope from 1.486 to 2.363 μm and essentially no difference in the 2-μm band depth at higher phase angles. These contrasting phase effects imply that there are phase-dependent differences in the parametric measurements of 1- and 2-μm band areas, and in their ratio. The Hapke model fits suggest that Eros exhibits a weaker opposition surge than either 951 Gaspra or 243 Ida (the only other S-type asteroids for which we possess disk-resolved photometric observations). On average, we find that Eros at 0.946 μm has a higher geometric albedo and a higher single-scatter albedo than Gaspra or Ida at 0.56 μm; however, Eros''s single-particle phase function asymmetry and average surface macroscopic roughness parameters are intermediate between Gaspra and Ida. Only two of the five Hapke model parameters exhibit a notable wavelength dependence: (1) The single-scatter albedo mimics the spectrum of Eros, and (2) there is a decrease in angular width of the opposition surge with increasing wavelength from 0.8 to 1.7 μm. Such opposition surge behavior is not adequately modeled with our shadow-hiding Hapke model, consistent with coherent backscattering phenomena near zero phase. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Presents a report on the imaging of asteroid 433 Eros during the Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) spacecraft flyby in December 1998. Details of the images; Observation of an elongated, cratered body with a linear feature extending for at least 20 kilometers; Dimensions and density of Eros; Suggestion that Eros may be a structurally coherent body.

Sedimentary rocks at Yellowknife Bay (Gale crater) on Mars include mudstone sampled by the Curiosity rover. The samples, John Klein and Cumberland, contain detrital basaltic minerals, calcium sulfates, iron oxide or hydroxides, iron sulfides, amorphous material, and trioctahedral smectites. The John Klein smectite has basal spacing of ~10 angstroms, indicating little interlayer hydration. The Cumberland smectite has basal spacing at both ~13.2 and ~10 angstroms. The larger spacing suggests a partially chloritized interlayer or interlayer magnesium or calcium facilitating H2O retention. Basaltic minerals in the mudstone are similar to those in nearby eolian deposits. However, the mudstone has far less Fe-forsterite, possibly lost with formation of smectite plus magnetite. Late Noachian/Early Hesperian or younger age indicates that clay mineral formation on Mars extended beyond Noachian time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

H2O, CO2, SO2, O2, H2, H2S, HCl, chlorinated hydrocarbons, NO, and other trace gases were evolved during pyrolysis of two mudstone samples acquired by the Curiosity rover at Yellowknife Bay within Gale crater, Mars. H2O/OH-bearing phases included 2:1 phyllosilicate(s), bassanite, akaganeite, and amorphous materials. Thermal decomposition of carbonates and combustion of organic materials are candidate sources for the CO2. Concurrent evolution of O2 and chlorinated hydrocarbons suggests the presence of oxychlorine phase(s). Sulfides are likely sources for sulfur-bearing species. Higher abundances of chlorinated hydrocarbons in the mudstone compared with Rocknest windblown materials previously analyzed by Curiosity suggest that indigenous martian or meteoritic organic carbon sources may be preserved in the mudstone; however, the carbon source for the chlorinated hydrocarbons is not definitively of martian origin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Mars rover Opportunity has explored Victoria crater, a -750-meter eroded impact crater formed in sulfate-rich sedimentary rocks. Impact-related stratigraphy is preserved in the crater walls, and meteoritic debris is present near the crater rim. The size of hematite-rich concretions decreases up-section, documenting variation in the intensity of groundwater processes. Layering in the crater walls preserves evidence of ancient wind-blown dunes. Compositional variations with depth mimic those -6 kilometers to the north and demonstrate that water-induced alteration at Meridiani Planum was regional in scope. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mineral deposits on the martian surface can elucidate ancient environmental conditions on the planet. Opaline silica deposits (as much as 91 weight percent SiO2) have been found in association with volcanic materials by the Mars rover Spirit. The deposits are present both as Light-toned soils and as bedrock. We interpret these materials to have formed under hydrothermal conditions and therefore to be strong indicators of a former aqueous environment. This discovery is important for understanding the past habitability of Mars because hydrothermal environments on Earth support thriving microbial ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity has spent more than 2 years exploring Meridiani Planum, traveling ∼8 kilometers and detecting features that reveal ancient environmental conditions. These include well-developed festoon (trough) cross-lamination formed in flowing liquid water, strata with smaller and more abundant hematite-rich concretions than those seen previously, possible relict ‘hopper crystals’ that might reflect the formation of halite, thick weathering rinds on rock surfaces, resistant fracture fills, and networks of polygonal fractures likely caused by dehydration of sulfate salts. Chemical variations with depth show that the siliciclastic fraction of outcrop rock has undergone substantial chemical alteration from a precursor basaltic composition. Observations from microscopic to orbital scales indicate that ancient Meridiani once had abundant acidic groundwater, arid and oxidizing surface conditions, and occasional liquid flow on the surface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Spirit rover completed a 2.5 km traverse across gently sloping plains on the floor of Gusev crater from its location on the outer rim of Bonneville crater to the lower slopes of the Columbia Hills, Mars. Using the Athena suite of instruments in a transect approach, a systematic series of overlapping panoramic mosaics, remote sensing observations, sure face analyses, and trenching operations documented the lateral variations in landforms, geologic materials, and chemistry of the surface throughout the traverse, demonstrating the ability to apply the techniques of field geology by remote rover operations. Textures and shapes of rocks within the plains are consistent with derivation from impact excavation and mixing of the upper few meters of basaltic lavas. The contact between sure rounding plains and crater ejecta is generally abrupt and marked by increases in clast abundance and decimeter-scale steps in relief. Basaltic materials of the plains overlie less indurated and more altered rock types at a time-stratigraphic contact between the plains and Columbia Hills that occurs over a distance of one to two meters. This implies that regional geologic contacts are well preserved and that Earth-like field geologic mapping will be possible on Mars despite eons of overturn by small impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A visible atmospheric optical depth of 0.9 was measured by the Spirit rover at Gusev crater and by the Opportunity rover at Meridiani Planum. Optical depth decreased by about 0.6 to 0.7% per sol through both 90-sol primary missions. The vertical distribution of atmospheric dust at Gusev crater was consistent with uniform mixing, with a measured scale height of 11.56 ± 0.62 kilometers. The dust's cross section weighted mean radius was 1.47 ± 0.21 micrometers (µm) at Gusev and 1.52 ± 0.18 µm at Meridiani. Comparison of visible optical depths with 9-µm optical depths shows a visible-to-infrared optical depth ratio of 2.0 ± 0.2 for comparison with previous monitoring of infrared optical depths. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The location of the Opportunity landing site was determined to better than 10-m absolute accuracy from analyses of radio tracking data. We determined Rover locations during traverses with an error as small as several centimeters using engineering telemetry and overlapping images. Topographic profiles generated from rover data show that the plains are very smooth from meter- to centimeter-length scales, consistent with analyses of orbital observations. Solar cell output decreased because of the deposition of airborne dust on the panels. The lack of dust-covered surfaces on Meridiani Planum indicates that high velocity winds must remove this material on a continuing basis. The low mechanical strength of the evaporitic rocks as determined from grinding experiments, and the abundance of coarse-grained surface particles argue for differential erosion of Meridiani Planum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Microscopic Imager on the Opportunity rover analyzed textures of soils and rocks at Meridiani Planum at a scale of 31 micrometers per pixel. The uppermost millimeter of some soils is weakly cemented, whereas other soils show little evidence of cohesion. Rock outcrops are laminated on a millimeter scale; image mosaics of cross-stratification suggest that some sediments were deposited by flowing water. Vugs in some outcrop faces are probably molds formed by dissolution of relatively soluble minerals during diagenesis. Microscopic images support the hypothesis that hematite-rich spherules observed in outcrops and soils also formed diagenetically as concretions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The soils at the Opportunity site are fine-grained basaltic sands mixed with dust and sulfate-rich outcrop debris. Hematite is concentrated in spherules eroded from the strata. Ongoing saltation exhumes the spherules and their fragments concentrating them at the surface. Spherules emerge from soils coated, perhaps from subsurface cementation, by salts. Two types of vesicular clasts may represent basaltic sand sources. Eolian ripples, armored by well-sorted hematite-rich grains, pervade Meridiani Planum. The thickness of the soil on the plain is estimated to be about a meter. The flatness and thin cover suggest that the plain may represent the original sedimentary surface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sedimentary rocks at Eagle crater in Meridiani Planum are composed of fine-grained siliciclastic materials derived from weathering of basaltic rocks, sulfate minerals (including magnesium sulfate and jarosite) that constitute several tens of percent of the rock by weight, and hematite. Cross-stratification observed in rock outcrops indicates eolian and aqueous transport. Diagenetic features include hematite-rich concretions and crystal-mold vugs. We interpret the rocks to be a mixture of chemical and siliciclastic sediments with a complex diagenetic history. The environmental conditions that they record include episodic inundation by shallow surface water, evaporation, and desiccation. The geologic record at Meridiani Planum suggests that conditions were suitable for biological activity for a period of time in martian history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]