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A diverse range of dust attenuation laws is found in star-forming galaxies. In particular, Tress et al. (2018) studied the SHARDS survey to constrain the NUV bump strength (B) and the total-to-selective ratio (RV) of 1753 star-forming galaxies in the GOODS-N field at 1.5 <  z  < 3. We revisit here this sample to assess the implications and possible causes of the correlation found between RV and B. The UVJ bicolour plot and main sequence of star formation are scrutinized to look for clues into the observed trend. The standard boundary between quiescent and star-forming galaxies is preserved when taking into account the wide range of attenuation parameters. However, an additional degeneracy – regarding the effective attenuation law – is added to the standard loci of star-forming galaxies in the UVJ diagram. A simple phenomenological model with an age-dependent extinction (at fixed dust composition) is compatible with the observed trend between RV and B , whereby the opacity decreases with the age of the populations, resulting in a weaker NUV bump when the overall attenuation is shallower (greyer). In addition, we compare the constraints obtained by the SHARDS sample with dust models from the literature, supporting a scenario where geometry could potentially drive the correlation between RV and B. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We have undertaken a comprehensive search for both Lyman alpha emitters (LAEs) and Lyman break galaxies (LBGs) in the Survey for High- z Absorption Red and Dead Sources (SHARDS) Survey of the Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey North field. SHARDS is a deep imaging survey, made with the 10.4 m Gran Telescopio Canarias, employing 25 medium band filters in the range from 500 to 941 nm. This is the first time that both LAEs and LBGs are surveyed simultaneously in a systematic way in a large field. We draw a sample of 1558 sources; 528 of them are LAEs. Most of the sources (1434) show rest-frame UV continua. A minority of them (124) are pure LAEs with virtually no continuum detected in SHARDS. We study these sources from z  ∼ 3.35 up to z ∼ 6.8, well into the epoch of reionization. Note that surveys done with just one or two narrow band filters lack the possibility to spot the rest-frame UV continuum present in most of our LAEs. We derive redshifts, star formation rates, Lyα equivalent widths, and luminosity functions (LFs). Grouping within our sample is also studied, finding 92 pairs or small groups of galaxies at the same redshift separated by less than 60 comoving kpc. In addition, we relate 87 and 55 UV-selected objects with two known overdensities at z  = 4.05 and z  = 5.198, respectively. Finally, we show that surveys made with broad-band filters are prone to introduce many unwanted sources (∼20 per cent interlopers), which means that previous studies may be overestimating the calculated LFs, specially at the faint end. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We quantify the evolution of the stellar mass functions (SMFs) of star-forming and quiescent galaxies as a function of morphology from z ∼ 3 to the present. Our sample consists of ∼50 000 galaxies in the CANDELS fields (∼880 arcmin2), which we divide into four main morphological types, i.e. pure bulge-dominated systems, pure spiral disc-dominated, intermediate two-component bulge+disc systems and irregular disturbed galaxies. At z ∼ 2, 80 per cent of the stellar mass density of star-forming galaxies is in irregular systems. However, by z ∼ 0.5, irregular objects only dominate at stellar masses below 109 M⊙. A majority of the star-forming irregulars present at z ∼ 2 undergo a gradual transformation from disturbed to normal spiral disc morphologies by z ∼ 1 without significant interruption to their star formation. Rejuvenation after a quenching event does not seem to be common except perhaps for the most massive objects, because the fraction of bulge-dominated star-forming galaxies with M*/M⊙ >1010.7 reaches 40 per cent at z < 1. Quenching implies the presence of a bulge: the abundance of massive red discs is negligible at all redshifts over 2 dex in stellar mass. However, the dominant quenching mechanism evolves. At z > 2, the SMF of quiescent galaxies above M* is dominated by compact spheroids. Quenching at this early epoch destroys the disc and produces a compact remnant unless the star-forming progenitors at even higher redshifts are significantly more dense. At 1 < z < 2, the majority of newly quenched galaxies are discs with a significant central bulge. This suggests that mass quenchin at this epoch starts from the inner parts and preserves the disc. At z < 1, the high-mass end of the passive SMF is globally in place and the evolution mostly happens at stellar masses below 1010 M⊙. These low-mass galaxies are compact, bulge-dominated systems, which were environmentally quenched: destruction of the disc through ram-pressure stripping is the likely process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We probe the merging channel of massive galaxies over the z = 0.3–1.3 redshift window by studying close pairs in a sample of 238 galaxies with stellar mass ≳1011 M⊙, from the SHARDS (Survey for High-z Absorption Red and Dead Sources) survey. SHARDS provides medium-band photometry equivalent to low-resolution optical spectra (R ∼ 50), allowing us to obtain extremely accurate photometric redshifts (median |Δz|/(1 + z) ∼ 0.55 per cent) and to improve the constraints on the age distribution of the stellar populations. Our data set is volume limited, probing merger progenitors with mass ratios 1:100 (μ ≡ Msat/Mcen = 0.01) out to z = 1.3. A strong correlation is found between the age difference of host and companion galaxy and stellar mass ratio, from negligible age differences in major mergers to age differences ∼4 Gyr for 1:100 minor mergers. However, this correlation is simply a reflection of the mass–age trend in the general population. The dominant contributor to the growth of massive galaxies corresponds to mass ratios μ ≳ 0.3, followed by a decrease in the fractional mass growth rate linearly proportional to log μ, at least down to μ ∼ 0.01, suggesting a decreasing role of mergers involving low-mass companions, especially if dynamical friction time-scales are taken into account. A simple model results in an upper limit for the average mass growth rate of massive galaxies of (ΔM/M)/Δt ∼ 0.08 ± 0.02 Gyr−1, over the z ≲ 1 range, with an ∼70 per cent fractional contribution from (major) mergers with μ ≳ 0.3. The majority of the stellar mass contributed by mergers does not introduce significantly younger populations, in agreement with the small radial age gradients observed in present-day early-type galaxies. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

We investigate the relationship between active galactic nucleus (AGN) activity and host galaxy properties using a sample of massive galaxies at z ∼ 2 in the Chandra Deep Field-South (CDFS).A sample of 268 galaxies with M∗ >1010.5Mꙩ at 1.4< z< 3 are selected from Hubble Space Telescope wide field camera 3 (WFC3) H-band observations in CDFS taken as part of the cosmic assembly near-infrared deep extragalactic legacy survey (CANDELS) survey. We find that a large fraction (22.0±2.5 per cent) are detected in the 4 Ms Chandra/Advanced CCD Image Spectrometer observations in the field, implying a high AGN content in these massive galaxies. To investigate further the relationship between these AGN and their hosts, we create four subsamples, based on their star formation rates (star-forming versus quiescent) and galaxy size (compact versus extended), following Barro et al. and perform X-ray spectral fitting. We find a clear effect whereby the AGN in compact galaxies – be they star forming or quiescent – show significantly higher luminosities and levels of obscuration than the AGN in extended galaxies. These results provide clear evidence for two modes of black hole growth in massive galaxies at high redshift. The dominant growth mode is a luminous, obscured phase which occurs overwhelmingly in compact galaxies while another lower luminosity, unobscured phase is predominantly seen in extended galaxies. Both modes could produce AGN feedback, with violent transformative feedback in the former and a gentler ‘maintenance mode’ produced by the latter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We study the evolution of the number density, as a function of the size, of passive early-type galaxies (ETGs) with a wide range of stellar masses (1010M☼ < M* ≲ 1011.5M☼) from z ∼ 3 to z ∼ 1, exploiting the unique data set available in the GOODS-South field, including the recently obtained WFC3 images as part of the Cosmic Assembly Near-infrared Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey. In particular, we select a sample of ∼107 massive (M* > 1010M☼), passive (SSFR < 10–2 Gyr–1), and morphologically spheroidal galaxies at 1.2 < z < 3, taking advantage of the panchromatic data set available for GOODS, including VLT, CFHT, Spitzer, Chandra, and HST ACS+WFC3 data. We find that at 1 < z < 3 the passively evolving ETGs are the reddest and most massive objects in the universe, and we prove that a correlation between mass, morphology, color, and star formation activity is already in place at that epoch. We measure a significant evolution in the mass-size relation of passive ETGs from z ∼ 3 to z ∼ 1, with galaxies growing on average by a factor of two in size in a 3 Gyr timescale only. We also witness an increase in the number density of passive ETGs of 50 times over the same time interval. We find that the first ETGs to form at z ≳ 2 are all compact or ultra-compact, while normal-sized ETGs (meaning ETGs with sizes comparable to those of local counterparts of the same mass) are the most common ETGs only at z < 1. The increase of the average size of ETGs at 0 < z < 1 is primarily driven by the appearance of new large ETGs rather than by the size increase of individual galaxies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The accretion of minor satellites is currently proposed as the most likely mechanism to explain the significant size evolution of the massive galaxies during the last ∼10 Gyr. In this paper, we investigate the rest-frame colours and the average stellar ages of satellites found around massive galaxies (Mstar ∼ 1011 M⊙) since z ∼ 2. We find that the satellites have bluer colours than their central galaxies. When exploring the stellar ages of the galaxies, we find that the satellites have similar ages to the massive galaxies that host them at high redshifts, while at lower redshifts they are, on average, ≳1.5 Gyr younger. If our satellite galaxies create the envelope of nearby massive galaxies, our results would be compatible with the idea that the outskirts of those galaxies are slightly younger, metal-poorer and with lower [α/Fe] abundance ratios than their inner regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT The accretion of minor satellites has been postulated as the most likely mechanism to explain the significant size evolution of massive galaxies over cosmic time. Using a sample of 629 massive ( Mstar∼ 1011 M⊙) galaxies from the near-infrared Palomar/DEEP-2 survey, we explore what fraction of these objects have satellites with 0.01 < Msat/ Mcentral < 1 (1:100) up to z= 1 and what fraction have satellites with 0.1 < Msat/ Mcentral < 1 (1:10) up to z= 2 within a projected radial distance of 100 kpc. We find that the fraction of massive galaxies with satellites, after background correction, remains basically constant and close to 30 per cent for satellites with a mass ratio down to 1:100 up to z= 1, and close to 15 per cent for satellites with a 1:10 mass ratio up to z= 2. The family of spheroid-like massive galaxies presents a 2-3 times larger fraction of objects with satellites than the group of disc-like massive galaxies. A crude estimation of the number of 1:3 mergers a massive spheroid-like galaxy has experienced since z∼ 2 is around 2. For a disc-like galaxy this number decreases to ∼1. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT We present the results of a comparison between the optical morphologies of a complete sample of 46 southern 2 Jy radio galaxies at intermediate redshifts (0.05 < z < 0.7) and those of two control samples of quiescent early-type galaxies: 55 ellipticals at redshifts z ≤ 0.01 from the Observations of Bright Ellipticals at Yale (OBEY) survey, and 107 early-type galaxies at redshifts 0.2 < z < 0.7 in the Extended Groth Strip (EGS). Based on these comparisons, we discuss the role of galaxy interactions in the triggering of powerful radio galaxies (PRGs). We find that a significant fraction of quiescent ellipticals at low and intermediate redshifts show evidence for disturbed morphologies at relatively high surface brightness levels, which are likely the result of past or on-going galaxy interactions. However, the morphological features detected in the galaxy hosts of the PRGs (e.g. tidal tails, shells, bridges, etc.) are up to 2 mag brighter than those present in their quiescent counterparts. Indeed, if we consider the same surface brightness limits, the fraction of disturbed morphologies is considerably smaller in the quiescent population (53 per cent at z < 0.2 and 48 per cent at 0.2 ≤ z < 0.7) than in the PRGs (93 per cent at z < 0.2 and 95 per cent at 0.2 ≤ z < 0.7 considering strong-line radio galaxies only). This supports a scenario in which PRGs represent a fleeting active phase of a subset of the elliptical galaxies that have recently undergone mergers/interactions. However, we demonstrate that only a small proportion (≲20 per cent) of disturbed early-type galaxies are capable of hosting powerful radio sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Profiles the medical field in Italy. Health services; Drug policy; The future for Italian health care and research.

We present the public release of the stellar mass catalogs for the GOODS-S and UDS fields obtained using some of the deepest near-IR images available, achieved as part of the Cosmic Assembly Near-infrared Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey project. We combine the effort from 10 different teams, who computed the stellar masses using the same photometry and the same redshifts. Each team adopted their preferred fitting code, assumptions, priors, and parameter grid. The combination of results using the same underlying stellar isochrones reduces the systematics associated with the fitting code and other choices. Thanks to the availability of different estimates, we can test the effect of some specific parameters and assumptions on the stellar mass estimate. The choice of the stellar isochrone library turns out to have the largest effect on the galaxy stellar mass estimates, resulting in the largest distributions around the median value (with a semi interquartile range larger than 0.1 dex). On the other hand, for most galaxies, the stellar mass estimates are relatively insensitive to the different parameterizations of the star formation history. The inclusion of nebular emission in the model spectra does not have a significant impact for the majority of galaxies (less than a factor of 2 for ∼80% of the sample). Nevertheless, the stellar mass for the subsample of young galaxies (age <100 Myr), especially in particular redshift ranges (e.g., 2.2 < z < 2.4, 3.2 < z < 3.6, and 5.5 < z < 6.5), can be seriously overestimated (by up to a factor of 10 for <20 Myr sources) if nebular contribution is ignored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Looks at the state of public health services in Italy in 1996. Italian national characteristics which have influenced the national health service (NHS); Background of the NHS; Efforts to reform the NHS, and why these efforts failed; Possible remedies.

We use data taken as part of Hubble Space Telescope (HST)/Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) observations of the Cosmic Assembly Near-infrared Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey (CANDELS) to identify massive and evolved galaxies at 3 < z < 4.5. This is performed using the strength of the Balmer break feature at rest-frame 3648 Å, which is a diagnostic of the age of the stellar population in galaxies. Using the WFC3 H-band-selected catalog for the CANDELS GOODS-S field and deep multi-waveband photometry from optical (HST) to mid-infrared (Spitzer) wavelengths, we identify a population of old and evolved post-starburst galaxies based on the strength of their Balmer breaks (Balmer break galaxies, BBGs). The galaxies are also selected to be bright in rest-frame near-IR wavelengths and hence massive. We identify a total of 16 BBGs. Fitting the spectral energy distribution of the BBGs shows that the candidate galaxies have average estimated ages of ∼800 Myr and average stellar masses of ∼5 × 1010M☼, consistent with being old and massive systems. Two of our BBG candidates are also identified by the criteria that are sensitive to star-forming galaxies (Lyman break galaxy selection). We find a number density of ∼3.2 × 10–5 Mpc–3 for the BBGs, corresponding to a mass density of ∼2.0 × 106M☼ Mpc–3 in the redshift range covering the survey. Given the old age and the passive evolution, it is argued that some of these objects formed the bulk of their mass only a few hundred million years after the big bang. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We analyze the star-forming and structural properties of 45 massive (log(M/M☼) >10) compact star-forming galaxies (SFGs) at 2 < z < 3 to explore whether they are progenitors of compact quiescent galaxies at z ∼ 2. The optical/NIR and far-IR Spitzer/Herschel colors indicate that most compact SFGs are heavily obscured. Nearly half (47%) host an X-ray-bright active galactic nucleus (AGN). In contrast, only about 10% of other massive galaxies at that time host AGNs. Compact SFGs have centrally concentrated light profiles and spheroidal morphologies similar to quiescent galaxies and are thus strikingly different from other SFGs, which typically are disk-like and sometimes clumpy or irregular. Most compact SFGs lie either within the star formation rate (SFR)-mass main sequence (65%) or below it (30%), on the expected evolutionary path toward quiescent galaxies. These results show conclusively that galaxies become more compact before they lose their gas and dust, quenching star formation. Using extensive HST photometry from CANDELS and grism spectroscopy from the 3D-HST survey, we model their stellar populations with either exponentially declining (τ) star formation histories (SFHs) or physically motivated SFHs drawn from semianalytic models (SAMs). SAMs predict longer formation timescales and older ages ∼2 Gyr, which are nearly twice as old as the estimates of the τ models. Both models yield good spectral energy distribution fits, indicating that the systematic uncertainty in the age due to degeneracies in the SFH is of that order of magnitude. However, SAM SFHs better match the observed slope and zero point of the SFR-mass main sequence. Contrary to expectations, some low-mass compact SFGs (log(M/M☼) =10-10.6) have younger ages but lower specific SFRs than that of more massive galaxies, suggesting that the low-mass galaxies reach the red sequence faster. If the progenitors of compact SFGs are extended SFGs, state-of-the-art SAMs show that mergers and disk instabilities (DIs) are both able to shrink galaxies, but DIs are more frequent (60% versus 40%) and form more concentrated galaxies. We confirm this result via high-resolution hydrodynamic simulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spectroscopic+photometric redshifts, stellar mass estimates, and rest-frame colors from the 3D-HST survey are combined with structural parameter measurements from CANDELS imaging to determine the galaxy size-mass distribution over the redshift range 0 < z < 3. Separating early- and late-type galaxies on the basis of star-formation activity, we confirm that early-type galaxies are on average smaller than late-type galaxies at all redshifts, and we find a significantly different rate of average size evolution at fixed galaxy mass, with fast evolution for the early-type population, Reff∝(1 + z)–1.48, and moderate evolution for the late-type population, Reff∝(1 + z)–0.75. The large sample size and dynamic range in both galaxy mass and redshift, in combination with the high fidelity of our measurements due to the extensive use of spectroscopic data, not only fortify previous results but also enable us to probe beyond simple average galaxy size measurements. At all redshifts the slope of the size-mass relation is shallow, , for late-type galaxies with stellar mass >3 × 109M☼, and steep, , for early-type galaxies with stellar mass >2 × 1010M☼. The intrinsic scatter is ≲0.2 dex for all galaxy types and redshifts. For late-type galaxies, the logarithmic size distribution is not symmetric but is skewed toward small sizes: at all redshifts and masses, a tail of small late-type galaxies exists that overlaps in size with the early-type galaxy population. The number density of massive (∼1011M☼), compact (Reff < 2 kpc) early-type galaxies increases from z = 3 to z = 1.5-2 and then strongly decreases at later cosmic times. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accretion of minor satellites has been postulated as the most likely mechanism to explain the significant size evolution of massive galaxies over cosmic time. A direct way of probing this scenario is to measure the frequency of satellites around massive galaxies at different redshifts. Here we present our study of satellites around massive galaxies (Mstar ~ 1011 M⊙) up to z ~ 2. We find (Fig. 1) that the fraction of massive galaxies with satellites down to 1:10 mass ratio is ~15% (~30% down to 1:100), not varying with redshift (Mármol-Queraltó et al., (2012)). We also find that our satellites are younger than their central galaxies at low z (Mármol-Queraltó et al., 2013). Then, if minor merging is acting to form massive galaxies, their ourtskirts should be younger than their cores. The challenge to find this age gradient in nearby massive galaxies is opened. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Nearby galaxies come in two flavors: red quiescent galaxies (QGs) with old stellar populations, and blue young star-forming galaxies (SFGs). This color bimodality seems to be already in place at z = 2 − 3, presenting also strong correlations with size and morphology. Surprisingly, massive QGs at higher redshifts are ~5 times smaller than local, equal mass analogs. In contrast, most of the massive SFGs at these redshifts are still relatively large disks. The strong bimodality in both SFR and sizes indicates that some SFGs must experience strong structural transformations accompanied by a rapid truncation of the star-formation to match the observed properties of QGs. Using high-resolution HST/WFC3 F160W imaging from the CANDELS survey in GOODS-S and UDS, along with multi-wavelength ancillary data, we analyze stellar masses, SFRs and sizes of a sample of massive (M* > 1010M⊙) galaxies at z = 1.4 − 3.0 to identify a population of compact SFGs with similar structural properties as compact QGs at z~2. We also find that the number density of QGs increases rapidly since z = 3. Among these, the number of compact QGs builds up first, and only at z < 1.8 we do start finding a sizable number of extended QGs. This suggests that the bulk of these galaxies are assembled at late times by both continuous migration (quenching) of non-compact SFGs and size growth of cQGs. As a result of this growth, the population of cQGs disappears by z~1. Simultaneously, we identify a population of compact SFGs (cSFGs) whose number density decreases steadily with time since z = 3.0, being almost completely absent at z < 1.4. The number of cSFGs makes up less than 20% of all massive SFGs, but they present similar number densities as cQGs down to z~2, suggesting an evolutionary link between the two populations. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The shutdown of star formation in galaxies is generally termed “quenching.” Quenching may occur through a variety of processes, e.g., active galactic nucleus (AGN) feedback, stellar feedback, or the shock heating of gas in the dark matter halo. However, which mechanism(s) is, in fact, responsible for quenching is still in question. This paper addresses quenching by searching for traces of possible quenching processes through their effects on galaxy structural parameters such as stellar mass (M*), M*/re, surface stellar mass density (∼M*/r2e), and Sérsic index (n). We analyze the rest-frame U – B color correlations versus these structural parameters using a sample of galaxies in the redshift range 0.5 ⩽ z < 0.8 from the DEEP2/AEGIS survey. In addition to global radii, stellar masses, and Sérsic parameters, we also use “bulge” and “disk” photometric measurements from GIM2D fits to HST/ACS V and I images. We assess the tightness of the color relationships by measuring their “overlap regions,” defined as the area in color-parameter space in which red and blue galaxies overlap; the parameter that minimizes these overlap regions is considered to be the most effective color discriminator. We find that Sérsic index (n) has the smallest overlap region among all tested parameters and resembles a step function with a threshold value of n = 2.3. There exists, however, a significant population of outliers with blue colors yet high n values that seem to contradict this behavior; they make up ≈40% of n > 2.3 galaxies. We hypothesize that their Sérsic values may be distorted by bursts of star formation, AGNs, and/or poor fits, leading us to consider central surface stellar mass density, Σ*1 kpc, as an alternative to Sérsic index. Not only does Σ*1 kpc correct the outliers, but it also forms a tight relationship with color, suggesting that the innermost structure of galaxies is most physically linked with quenching. Furthermore, at z ∼ 0.65, the majority of the blue cloud galaxies cannot simply fade onto the red sequence since their GIM2D bulge masses are only half as large on average as the bulge masses of similar red sequence galaxies, thus demonstrating that stellar mass must absolutely increase at the centers of galaxies as they quench. We discuss a two-stage model for quenching in which galaxy star formation rates are controlled by their dark halos while they are still in the blue cloud and a second quenching process sets in later, associated with the central stellar mass buildup. The mass buildup is naturally explained by any non-axisymmetric features in the potential, such as those induced by mergers and/or disk instabilities. However, the identity of the second quenching agent is still unknown. We have placed our data catalog online. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The majority of massive disk galaxies in the local Universe show a stellar barred structure in their central regions, including our Milky Way 1,2 . Bars are supposed to develop in dynamically cold stellar disks at low redshift, as the strong gas turbulence typical of disk galaxies at high redshift suppresses or delays bar formation 3,4 . Moreover, simulations predict bars to be almost absent beyond z = 1.5 in the progenitors of Milky Way-like galaxies 5,6 . Here we report observations of ceers-2112, a barred spiral galaxy at redshift z phot  ≈ 3, which was already mature when the Universe was only 2 Gyr old. The stellar mass (M ★  = 3.9 × 10 9  M ⊙ ) and barred morphology mean that ceers-2112 can be considered a progenitor of the Milky Way 7-9 , in terms of both structure and mass-assembly history in the first 2 Gyr of the Universe, and was the closest in mass in the first 4 Gyr. We infer that baryons in galaxies could have already dominated over dark matter at z ≈ 3, that high-redshift bars could form in approximately 400 Myr and that dynamically cold stellar disks could have been in place by redshift z = 4-5 (more than 12 Gyrs ago) 10,11 ., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Six monkeys subjected to forelimb deafferentation on day of birth (two blinded and four not blinded) spontaneously developed use of the affected limbs for support of body weight, ambulation, and clasping objects. The sighted animals also used them for climbing and reaching toward objects. Thumb-forefinger prehension did not emerge spontaneously but could be brought into existence through training. In another series of experiments, 5 of 11 monkey fetuses, exteriorized two-thirds of the way through gestation and given forelimb deafferentation, survived through caesarian delivery and at least 5 months of infancy. Although all were quadriparetic due to postoperative mechanical deformation of the cervical region, they were able to use the affected limbs to make postural adjustments and for standing and rudimentary ambulation. The results indicate that, after birth, neither spinal reflexes nor local somatosensory feedback and vision are necessary for the development of most types of movement performed by the forelimb musculature in monkeys. Continuance of the prenatal research should permit determination of the role of somatic sensation in the intrauterine development of behavior.

Four infant monkeys underwent somatosensory deafferentation of both forelimbs within hours after birth. Ambulation, climbing, and reaching toward objects developed spontaneously in each case. Thumb-forefinger prehension could be trained by operant shaping methods. Two infants deafferented at birth and blinded by eyelid closure were retarded in motor development by only 1 to 2 weeks. Results indicate that topographic sensory feedback and autogenetic spinal reflexes are not necessary after birth for the development of most types of movement performed by the forelimb musculature in monkeys.