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One strategy to improve olive (Olea europaea) tree drought tolerance is through the symbiosis of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), which helps alleviate water deficit through a combination of morphophysiological effects. Cuttings of olive varieties Arbequina (A) and Barnea (B) were grown with (+AMF) or without (−AMF) inoculum in the olive grove rhizosphere soil. One year after establishment, pots were exposed to four different water regimes: (1) control (100% of crop evapotranspiration); (2) short-period drought (20 days); (3) long-period drought (25 days); and (4) rewatering (R). To evaluate the influence of AMF on tolerance to water stress, stem water potential, stomatal conductance and the biomarkers for water deficit malondialdehyde, proline, soluble sugars, phenols, and flavonoids were evaluated at the end of the irrigation regimes. Stem water potential showed higher values in A(+) and B(+) in all water conditions, and the opposite was true for stomatal conductance. For proline and soluble sugars, the stem water potential trend is repeated with some exceptions. AMF inoculum spore communities from A(+ and −) and B(+ and −) were characterised at the morphospecies level in terms of richness and abundance. Certain morphospecies were identified as potential drought indicators. These results highlight that the benefits of symbiotic relationships between olive and native AMF can help to mitigate the effects of abiotic stress in soils affected by drought. We evaluated different water regimes on young cuttings of olive (Olea europaea) cvs Arbequina and Barnea inoculated with or without arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in a central-western olive grove in Argentina. We measured AMF morphospecies richness and abundance in the soil, plant vegetative growth, plant adaptation to drought stress, and crop water status. We found that certain morphological, physiological and biochemicalindicators may be useful to identify new strategies to mitigate water stress and improve water use efficiency during transplantation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant density is increasing in modern olive orchards to improve yields and facilitate mechanical harvesting. However, greater density can reduce light quantity and modify its quality. The objective was to evaluate plant morphology, biomass, and photosynthetic pigments under different red/far-red ratios and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) combinations in an olive cultivar common to super-high-density orchards. In a greenhouse, young olive trees (cv. Arbequina) were exposed to low (L) or high (H) PAR with or without lateral FR supplementation (L+FR, L-FR, H+FR, H-FR) using neutral-density shade cloth and FR light-emitting diode (LED) modules. Total plant and individual organ biomass were much lower in plants under low PAR than under high PAR, with no response to +FR supplementation. In contrast, several plant morphological traits, such as main stem elongation, individual leaf area, and leaf angle, did respond to both low PAR and +FR. Total chlorophyll content decreased with +FR when PAR was low, but not when PAR was high (i.e., a significant FR*PAR interaction). When evaluating numerous plant traits together, a greater response to +FR under low PAR than under high PAR appeared to occur. These findings suggest that consideration of light quality in addition to quantity facilitates a fuller understanding of olive tree responses to a light environment. The +FR responses found here could lead to changes in hedgerow architecture and light distribution within the hedgerow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cercospora Leaf Spot (CLS) of olive is an important fungal disease in Uruguay, causing severe early defoliation. Fungal isolates were obtained from olive leaves with typical CLS symptoms from Uruguayan orchards. The isolates were identified based on phenotypic characteristics and DNA sequence analyses. Infection processes under field conditions were characterized. Phylogenetic analyses confirmed that Pseudocercospora cladosporioides is the causal agent of CLS in Uruguay. Three colony morphologies were observed for isolates growing on potato dextrose agar. Mean conidium length ranged from 65.7 to 101.8 µm, and widths from 4.3 to 5.0 µm. Mean optimum growth temperature was 21.5°C (range 19.2 to 24.8°C). Under field conditions, initial CLS symptoms on leaves were observed 5 months after inoculation of cv. Arbequina plants, confirming the disease's lengthy incubation period. This study shows that CLS as one of the most prevalent and destructive olive diseases in Uruguay, and emphasizes the importance of further research to develop efficient management of this disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant density is increasing in modern olive orchards to improve yields and facilitate mechanical harvesting. However, greater density can reduce light quantity and modify its quality. The objective was to evaluate plant morphology, biomass, and photosynthetic pigments under different red/far-red ratios and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) combinations in an olive cultivar common to super-high-density orchards. In a greenhouse, young olive trees (cv. Arbequina) were exposed to low (L) or high (H) PAR with or without lateral FR supplementation (L+FR, L-FR, H+FR, H-FR) using neutral-density shade cloth and FR light-emitting diode (LED) modules. Total plant and individual organ biomass were much lower in plants under low PAR than under high PAR, with no response to +FR supplementation. In contrast, several plant morphological traits, such as main stem elongation, individual leaf area, and leaf angle, did respond to both low PAR and +FR. Total chlorophyll content decreased with +FR when PAR was low, but not when PAR was high (i.e., a significant FR*PAR interaction). When evaluating numerous plant traits together, a greater response to +FR under low PAR than under high PAR appeared to occur. These findings suggest that consideration of light quality in addition to quantity facilitates a fuller understanding of olive tree responses to a light environment. The +FR responses found here could lead to changes in hedgerow architecture and light distribution within the hedgerow.

In a young super-high-density (SHD) olive orchard located in Aidone (EN), in the Sicily Region, Italy, the architectural features of five olive cultivars were studied, specifically Arbequina, Arbosana, Oliana®, Giulia®, and FS-17®. Surveys were conducted in November 2019 considering biometric measurements for the whole tree, the canopy, and the primary and secondary branches. The "total branching frequency", the "sectorial branching frequency", the "total branching efficiency", the "sectorial branching efficiency", and the "total relative vigour" indexes were also calculated from the previous measurements. In addition, olive yield recorded for the years 2020, 2021, and 2022 (respectively, the third, fourth, and fifth years from planting) are shown in order to provide a more exhaustive description of the features of the cultivars. Giulia® and Oliana® resulted in being more similar to Arbequina and Arbosana, presenting a compact shape of the canopy and high and regular ramification of primary and secondary branches. FS-17® showed a higher expansion in canopy volume and higher vigour than the other cultivars, features that suggest it can be more susceptible to damage during mechanical harvest. Regarding the elaborated indexes, "total branching frequency" resulted in being not statistically different among the cultivars. "Sectorial branching frequency" resulted in being higher in the middle sector of the trunk height (51–100 cm) for all the tested cultivars. This study supplies helpful information about the different canopy and branch architectural characteristics of the five studied olive cultivars with respect to their suitability to high-density plantations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study was designed to assess the comparative morphology of eight olive cultivars with different geographical origins and diverse genetic backgrounds, introduced to a new climatic zone. The morphological parameters of eight (five exotic and three domestic) olive cultivars (Bari Zaitoon-1, Bari Zaitoon-2, Favolosa (FS-17), Koroneiki, Balkasar, Ottobratica, Leccino, and Arbequina) were compared at the experimental area of the Department of Botany, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan (29°24′0″ North, 71°41′0″ East, 401–421 feet above sea level). Plant height, number of leaves/15 cm shoot, leaf size characteristics (leaf length, leaf width, leaf area, and length/width ratio), leaf shape characteristics (margin, leaf axil, base, and apex angles), leaf pigments (Chlorophyll a, Chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll contents, and carotenoids), phyllotaxy, and leaf color and venation were recorded. The highest plant height (28 cm) was obtained by Bari Zaitoon-2 followed by Bari Zaitoon-1 (24 cm), both of which are domestic cultivar of Pakistan, while the shortest height (5 cm) was obtained by Koroneiki. Leccino displayed the highest average number of leaves (17.8) on main shoot, followed by BARI-2 (16.4) and the lowest score was from Balkasar (10.4). Leaf area ranged from 5.66 cm2 (Bari Zaitoon-1) to 3.08 cm2 (Koroneiki). The longest leaf length (5.74 cm) was found in Bari Zaitoon-1 and the shortest (4.04 cm) in Koroneiki, while the broadest leaves were found in Leccino (1.54 cm) and the narrowest (1.12 cm) in Koroneiki. Bari Zaitoon-2 led in leaf length to width ratio (4.058) followed by Bari Zaitoon-1 (3.772) with small lanceolate leaves hardly reaching the value of 4, with the lowest value illustrated by Leccino. The total chloroplast pigments were highest in FS-17 followed by Bari Zaitoon-1 and Bari Zaitoon-2, while the lowest was in Arbequina. Chlorophyll a was highest in Bari Zaitoon-1 followed by FS-17 and Balkasar, with the lowest rate in Arbequina. Chlorophyll b content of FS-17 was the highest whereas the Chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll contents in Arbequina were the lowest of all the cultivars. The highest value of total carotenoids was found in Balkasar followed by FS-17 with the lowest value in Arbequina. The phyllotaxy was categorized into three types, i.e., alternate, opposite, and whorled. The combination of two or more types was usually observed on the same branch. The whorl of four leaves was also present in rare cases. Leaf venation was both pinnate and reticulate. The leaf base of most (four) of the olive cultivars, i.e., Arbequina, Balkasar, Leccino and FS-17, were cuneate having acute, rounded, apiculate, and cuspidate leaf tips, respectively. The findings revealed remarkable variations in olive morphology, especially in the leaves and a successful record of the preliminary data of olive cultivars from the study area was made. The present research demonstrated that local olive cultivars have unique characteristics that differentiate them from imported cultivars. Thus, local cultivars provide novel genetic resources that should be conserved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Olive oil is one of the basic products in the Mediterranean diet, and, due to its nutritional value, it is becoming more and more widespread in the world. Even though it has traditionally been a rainfed crop, farmers are currently transforming their plantations into super-high-density orchards to increase production. However, the increasingly acute drought in Mediterranean countries forces the establishment of water control mechanisms that allow restriction the contribution of water without undermining the properties of the products obtained. Under this concept, hydroSOS crops and products arose. This study aims to analyze the influence of the application of deficit irrigation on the olive oil obtained from the Arbequina and Arbosana varieties. The sensory parameters descriptive profile and consumers satisfaction degree were measured using trained and consumers' panels, and the chemical parameters peroxide index, fatty acids, and volatile profile were analyzed using the methods from the International Olive Oil Council and gas chromatography. The experimental results showed that applying this type of irrigation leads to an oil that is more valued by consumers, with a higher concentration of aromatic compounds related with a greener aroma (hexanol, trans-2-hexen-1-ol, hexanal), a higher content of polyunsaturated fatty acids, and greater antioxidant capacity. Deficit irrigation strategies led to environmentally friendly olive oil with high acceptance by Spanish consumers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Olive tree crops and the olive oil market are becoming less and less diverse due to the rise of intensive growth varieties, with the consequent loss of varietal richness provided by oils from minority and autochthonous cultivars. "Royal de Calatayud" and "Negral de Sabiñán" are two local minority cultivars in Aragon (Spain). Fruit parameters such as ripening, fresh weight, and oil yield were evaluated, as well as physico-chemical and chemical composition parameters in olive oil in comparison with "Arbequina", a cultivar widespread in Spain and other countries. Fruits were harvested from October to December in 2017 and 2019. Chemometric analysis revealed significant varietal differences among the three cultivars. In comparison with "Arbequina", higher oil yields were obtained in the two local cultivars. "Royal de Calatayud" has a higher oleic acid content and a greater quantity of phenolic compounds. It thus displays a better nutritional profile than "Arbequina". This preliminary study shows that "Royal de Calatayud" could be regarded as an excellent alternative to the "Arbequina" cultivar in the parameters analyzed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information on the occurrence and damage by Saissetia oleae (Olivier) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) on Olea europaea L. (Oleaceae) plants is scarce. Saissetia oleae is a sucking insect and its feeding on the phloem affects the photosynthetic apparatus of cells. The objective of this research was to evaluate the occurrence and to determine the effect of S. oleae on the physiological characteristics of O. europaea cultivars. The experiment was carried out in the field in Diamantina, Minas Gerais State, Brazil, in a randomized block design in a 2 × 4 factorial scheme (plants of the cultivars 'Arbequina,' 'Ascolano,' 'Grappolo,' and 'Koroneiki' attacked or not). The total number and population density of S. oleae on the abaxial and adaxial sides of the O. europaea leaves were evaluated by direct counting in summer, autumn, and winter. The emission of chlorophyll was evaluated by measuring the fluorescence parameters on leaves per treatment and season. The total number of S. oleae was higher on the cultivar Grappolo than on the Ascolano and Arbequina. Grappolo, Koroneiki, and Ascolano showed a population decline of this insect in winter. The initial chlorophyll "a" fluorescence was higher in O. europaea damaged by S. oleae. The maximum photochemical quantum yield of photosystem II/maximum fluorescence ratio of chlorophyll "a" was equal to or greater than 0.75 for all O. europaea cultivars not attacked by S. oleae in the summer, autumn, and winter. The electron transport rate was lower in plants attacked, except for those of the Grappolo in the winter. The increase of initial fluorescence, reduction of maximum photochemical quantum yield of photosystem II/maximum fluorescence, and electron transport rate in some cultivars of O. europaea attacked by S. oleae indicate damages to the photosynthetic apparatus, resulting in a possible decrease in growth and yield of the plants. Informações sobre a ocorrência e danos de Saissetia oleae (Olivier) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) em plantas de Olea europaea L. (Oleaceae) são escassas. Saissetia oleae é um inseto sugador e, ao se alimentar do conteúdo do floema, afeta o aparelho fotossintético das células. O objetivo desta pesquisa foi avaliar a ocorrência e determinar o efeito de S. oleae nas características fisiológicas de cultivares de O. europaea. O experimento foi conduzido em campo em Diamantina, Minas Gerais, Brasil, em delineamento de blocos casualizados em esquema fatorial 2 × 4 (plantas atacadas ou não das cultivares 'Arbequina,' 'Ascolano,' 'Grappolo,' e 'Koroneiki'). O número total e a densidade populacional de S. oleae em O. europaea nas faces abaxial e adaxial das folhas foram avaliados no verão, outono e inverno. A emissão de clorofila foi obtida baseada nos parâmetros de fluorescência nas folhas por tratamento e estação. O número total de indivíduos de S. oleae foi maior na cultivar Grappolo que nas Ascolano e Arbequina e a população desse inseto diminuiu nas Grappolo, Koroneiki, e Ascolano no inverno. A fluorescência inicial da clorofila "a" foi maior em plantas de O. europaea atacadas por S. oleae. A relação do rendimento quântico fotoquímico máximo do fotossistema II/fluorescência máxima da clorofila "a" foi igual ou superior a 0,75 em todas as cultivares de O. europaea não atacadas por S. oleae no verão, outono e inverno. A taxa de transporte de elétrons foi menor em plantas atacadas, exceto para as de Grappolo no inverno. O aumento da fluorescência inicial e a redução do rendimento quântico fotoquímico máximo do fotossistema II/fluorescência máxima e transporte de elétrons em algumas cultivares de O. europaea atacadas por S. oleae indicam danos no aparato fotossintético e possível redução no crescimento e produção de plantas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Olive drupe (Olea europaea L.) oil extraction process, 80% of the volume generated is waste (bagasse). Advancing the expansion of the olive oil market, it is necessary to develop alternatives that, in addition to adding value to industrial waste, also reduce possible environmental damage. Our study aimed to understand the antimicrobial and Cytotoxic activity potential of the residues from the extraction of olive oil from the blend of the varieties Arbequina and Arbosana. The extract shows cytotoxic activity, inhibiting about 75% of cancer cells in the human colon at a concentration of 0.15 mg of Gallic Acid equivalent (GAE)/mL. The effectiveness of the extract against microorganisms often associated with foodborne diseases and food decomposition has also been discovered, without compromising the microorganisms responsible for fermentation. Thus, this study provides future perspectives for the use of active ingredients extracted from the residue from the extraction of olive oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Olive cultivation has been spread across Brazil subtropical regions, but yields have been variable through years and locations. The objectives of this work were to characterize the reproductive phenology and quantify some productive indexes of three olive cultivars (Arbequina, Arbosana and Koroneiki) in the warm, humid subtropical climate of western Santa Catarina, Brazil. Shoots of the three cultivars were marked and the quantitative indices of flowering and fruiting were observed periodically. At the same time, the reproductive phenology was evaluated following the BBCH scale, during three seasons, in Chapecó. Reproductive budburst varied from 0 to 32%, which resulted in a relatively low number of flowers per meter of shoot if compared to traditional growing regions, unlike fruit set rates (3.69 to 11.39%), which were similar. Compared to other regions, flowering time was early: inflorescences started to grow from end of June to mid-July, depending on the year. Then maturation was precocious as well, from the end of December to mid-March, and it was later in Koroneiki. The low flowering intensity with risk of frost damages discourages the production initiative in the region.

In a young super-high-density (SHD) olive orchard located in Aidone (EN), in the Sicily Region, Italy, the architectural features of five olive cultivars were studied, specifically Arbequina, Arbosana, Oliana®, Giulia®, and FS-17®. Surveys were conducted in November 2019 considering biometric measurements for the whole tree, the canopy, and the primary and secondary branches. The “total branching frequency”, the “sectorial branching frequency”, the “total branching efficiency”, the “sectorial branching efficiency”, and the “total relative vigour” indexes were also calculated from the previous measurements. In addition, olive yield recorded for the years 2020, 2021, and 2022 (respectively, the third, fourth, and fifth years from planting) are shown in order to provide a more exhaustive description of the features of the cultivars. Giulia® and Oliana® resulted in being more similar to Arbequina and Arbosana, presenting a compact shape of the canopy and high and regular ramification of primary and secondary branches. FS-17® showed a higher expansion in canopy volume and higher vigour than the other cultivars, features that suggest it can be more susceptible to damage during mechanical harvest. Regarding the elaborated indexes, “total branching frequency” resulted in being not statistically different among the cultivars. “Sectorial branching frequency” resulted in being higher in the middle sector of the trunk height (51–100 cm) for all the tested cultivars. This study supplies helpful information about the different canopy and branch architectural characteristics of the five studied olive cultivars with respect to their suitability to high-density plantations.

The current study was designed to assess the comparative morphology of eight olive cultivars with different geographical origins and diverse genetic backgrounds, introduced to a new climatic zone. The morphological parameters of eight (five exotic and three domestic) olive cultivars (Bari Zaitoon-1, Bari Zaitoon-2, Favolosa (FS-17), Koroneiki, Balkasar, Ottobratica, Leccino, and Arbequina) were compared at the experimental area of the Department of Botany, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan (29°24′0″ North, 71°41′0″ East, 401–421 feet above sea level). Plant height, number of leaves/15 cm shoot, leaf size characteristics (leaf length, leaf width, leaf area, and length/width ratio), leaf shape characteristics (margin, leaf axil, base, and apex angles), leaf pigments (Chlorophyll a, Chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll contents, and carotenoids), phyllotaxy, and leaf color and venation were recorded. The highest plant height (28 cm) was obtained by Bari Zaitoon-2 followed by Bari Zaitoon-1 (24 cm), both of which are domestic cultivar of Pakistan, while the shortest height (5 cm) was obtained by Koroneiki. Leccino displayed the highest average number of leaves (17.8) on main shoot, followed by BARI-2 (16.4) and the lowest score was from Balkasar (10.4). Leaf area ranged from 5.66 cm2 (Bari Zaitoon-1) to 3.08 cm2 (Koroneiki). The longest leaf length (5.74 cm) was found in Bari Zaitoon-1 and the shortest (4.04 cm) in Koroneiki, while the broadest leaves were found in Leccino (1.54 cm) and the narrowest (1.12 cm) in Koroneiki. Bari Zaitoon-2 led in leaf length to width ratio (4.058) followed by Bari Zaitoon-1 (3.772) with small lanceolate leaves hardly reaching the value of 4, with the lowest value illustrated by Leccino. The total chloroplast pigments were highest in FS-17 followed by Bari Zaitoon-1 and Bari Zaitoon-2, while the lowest was in Arbequina. Chlorophyll a was highest in Bari Zaitoon-1 followed by FS-17 and Balkasar, with the lowest rate in Arbequina. Chlorophyll b content of FS-17 was the highest whereas the Chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll contents in Arbequina were the lowest of all the cultivars. The highest value of total carotenoids was found in Balkasar followed by FS-17 with the lowest value in Arbequina. The phyllotaxy was categorized into three types, i.e., alternate, opposite, and whorled. The combination of two or more types was usually observed on the same branch. The whorl of four leaves was also present in rare cases. Leaf venation was both pinnate and reticulate. The leaf base of most (four) of the olive cultivars, i.e., Arbequina, Balkasar, Leccino and FS-17, were cuneate having acute, rounded, apiculate, and cuspidate leaf tips, respectively. The findings revealed remarkable variations in olive morphology, especially in the leaves and a successful record of the preliminary data of olive cultivars from the study area was made. The present research demonstrated that local olive cultivars have unique characteristics that differentiate them from imported cultivars. Thus, local cultivars provide novel genetic resources that should be conserved.

Oleuropein and other phenolic compounds contained in olive leaves give it the potential to be transformed from residue to co-product in an oil mill. However, the moment of the agronomic cycle in which their potential transformation is higher is not known in detail. Therefore, for the first time, a monthly study of the evolution of such compounds throughout an agronomic cycle is made (November 2019 to October 2020). Arbequina olive leaves were collected from three plots and the interactive effects of agronomic conditions were investigated, such as crop management (conventional and ecological), plantation framework (intensive and super-intensive) and location under different climatic conditions. The results showed that the main compound throughout the cycle was oleuropein and the highest levels occurred around the pruning season (February/March). Crop management and location affected the content of verbascoside and hydroxytyrosol, while plantation framework only influenced the flavonoid content. All compounds were affected by relative humidity and differential temperature, although hydroxytyrosol showed the highest correlation with the maximum temperature. The absorbance measurements by ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry showed trends parallel to the oleuropein concentration measured by high-performance liquid chromatography, which suggests that this method could be useful to easily study the evolution of oleuropein in the oil mill. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Olive oil is one of the basic products in the Mediterranean diet, and, due to its nutritional value, it is becoming more and more widespread in the world. Even though it has traditionally been a rainfed crop, farmers are currently transforming their plantations into super-high-density orchards to increase production. However, the increasingly acute drought in Mediterranean countries forces the establishment of water control mechanisms that allow restriction the contribution of water without undermining the properties of the products obtained. Under this concept, hydroSOS crops and products arose. This study aims to analyze the influence of the application of deficit irrigation on the olive oil obtained from the Arbequina and Arbosana varieties. The sensory parameters descriptive profile and consumers satisfaction degree were measured using trained and consumers’ panels, and the chemical parameters peroxide index, fatty acids, and volatile profile were analyzed using the methods from the International Olive Oil Council and gas chromatography. The experimental results showed that applying this type of irrigation leads to an oil that is more valued by consumers, with a higher concentration of aromatic compounds related with a greener aroma (hexanol, trans-2-hexen-1-ol, hexanal), a higher content of polyunsaturated fatty acids, and greater antioxidant capacity. Deficit irrigation strategies led to environmentally friendly olive oil with high acceptance by Spanish consumers.

Olive tree crops and the olive oil market are becoming less and less diverse due to the rise of intensive growth varieties, with the consequent loss of varietal richness provided by oils from minority and autochthonous cultivars. “Royal de Calatayud” and “Negral de Sabiñán” are two local minority cultivars in Aragon (Spain). Fruit parameters such as ripening, fresh weight, and oil yield were evaluated, as well as physico-chemical and chemical composition parameters in olive oil in comparison with “Arbequina”, a cultivar widespread in Spain and other countries. Fruits were harvested from October to December in 2017 and 2019. Chemometric analysis revealed significant varietal differences among the three cultivars. In comparison with “Arbequina”, higher oil yields were obtained in the two local cultivars. “Royal de Calatayud” has a higher oleic acid content and a greater quantity of phenolic compounds. It thus displays a better nutritional profile than “Arbequina”. This preliminary study shows that “Royal de Calatayud” could be regarded as an excellent alternative to the “Arbequina” cultivar in the parameters analyzed.

Olive is recognized as a crop with great impact in agricultural, socioeconomic, environmental and public health sectors. The last is becoming more important during recent years as consequence of the increase of the pollen allergy in south Europe prompted by the widespread Olea pollen allergic reactions. The aim of the study was to quantify, for the first time, the variations of the Ole e 1 allergen amount in Olea pollen grains from four cultivars in three regions of Portugal. How weather parameters can affect the allergen production was also assessed. The study was conducted in three olive producer areas of Portugal from 2010 to 2013, Santarém (Central), Elvas (Southeast) and Mirandela (Trás-os-Montes region, Northeast). Mature pollen of four different cultivars (Cobrançosa, Arbequina, Picual and Verdeal) was collected during the olive flowering season. Ole e 1 was quantified using specific 2-site antibody ELISA. Pollen of the olive groves at the boundary Olea bioclimatic distribution in the Mirandela registered the higher allergen content for all varieties in each study year. Arbequina was the variety that showed the lower Ole e 1 allergen concentration, whereas the higher content was registered for Cobrançosa. The main meteorological parameters that influenced the allergen Ole e 1 concentration in the pollen grains were the rainfall and temperatures related variables. The knowledge of the allergenicity in different olive cultivars is an important tool in the selection of the most adequate for planting as ornamental crop and to adjust the pollen extracts used for diagnosis or even immunotherapy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Oleuropein and other phenolic compounds contained in olive leaves give it the potential to be transformed from residue to co-product in an oil mill. However, the moment of the agronomic cycle in which their potential transformation is higher is not known in detail. Therefore, for the first time, a monthly study of the evolution of such compounds throughout an agronomic cycle is made (November 2019 to October 2020). Arbequina olive leaves were collected from three plots and the interactive effects of agronomic conditions were investigated, such as crop management (conventional and ecological), plantation framework (intensive and super-intensive) and location under different climatic conditions. The results showed that the main compound throughout the cycle was oleuropein and the highest levels occurred around the pruning season (February/March). Crop management and location affected the content of verbascoside and hydroxytyrosol, while plantation framework only influenced the flavonoid content. All compounds were affected by relative humidity and differential temperature, although hydroxytyrosol showed the highest correlation with the maximum temperature. The absorbance measurements by ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry showed trends parallel to the oleuropein concentration measured by high-performance liquid chromatography, which suggests that this method could be useful to easily study the evolution of oleuropein in the oil mill.

The objective of this work was to evaluate the influence of irrigation and fertilization with nitrogen and potassium on the sterol and triterpene dialcohol contents in two trials of cv. Arbequina in super-intensive orchards in Madrid and Lleida (Spain), using a completely randomized block design. No significant differences in total sterols between deficit and full irrigation treatments were observed. Under very dry conditions, the sterol levels from fully irrigated trees were higher than from rain-fed treatments and the triterpene dialcohol erythrodiol+ uvaol content was lower in the irrigated treatments in Lleida. In the fertilizer trial with full irrigation, total sterols were higher in the two N treatments compared to the unfertilized one; while erythrodiol + uvaol decreased. The application of K fertilizer had no effect on total sterol or triterpene dialcohol contents. A proper fertilization and irrigation are vital to obtain high quality EVOOs that meet the regulatory range in sterol and erythrodiol + uvaol contents.

Morphological and agronomical describers are traditionally used in plant characterization. However, the usage of these describers have some limitations such as susceptibility to abiotic and biotic stress and environmental factors. Furthermore, the describers are not stable over time and many can only be evaluated during the adult phase of the plants, which requires time and physical space. Molecular markers offer numerous advantages compared to the conventional alternatives based on phenotype: they are stable and detectable in all vegetable tissues, and are independent of the environment and development phase. One of the main advantages of the use of molecular markers is the time reduction in the identification of genetic diversity among the studied subjects, as the genotypes may even be described for the seed or seedling phase. Many countries have already adopted molecular markers to identify olive cultivars more accurately. The aim of this study was to evaluate the genetic identity of eight olive accessions supposedly belonging to cultivar Arbequina by using microsatellite (SSR) and Sequence Characterized Amplified Region (SCAR) markers. One accession corresponding to the cultivar was also incorporated into the analysis as a reference genotype. The molecular marker data were analyzed on the software GENALEX6. The markers generated an accumulated PI and PE of 1.26 x 10-6 and 0.949, respectively. The results supported the hypothesis that all accessions belong to the cultivar Arbequina, and the markers can therefore be applied to other varieties of olive species.

The objective of this work was to evaluate the influence of irrigation and fertilization with nitrogen and potassium on the sterol and triterpene dialcohol contents in two trials of cv. Arbequina in super-intensive orchards in Madrid and Lleida (Spain), using a completely randomized block design. No significant differences in total sterols between deficit and full irrigation treatments were observed. Under very dry conditions, the sterol levels from fully irrigated trees were higher than from rain-fed treatments and the triterpene dialcohol erythrodiol+ uvaol content was lower in the irrigated treatments in Lleida. In the fertilizer trial with full irrigation, total sterols were higher in the two N treatments compared to the unfertilized one; while erythrodiol + uvaol decreased. The application of K fertilizer had no effect on total sterol or triterpene dialcohol contents. A proper fertilization and irrigation are vital to obtain high quality EVOOs that meet the regulatory range in sterol and erythrodiol + uvaol contents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Olive oil production in Chile has increased 900% in the last 10 years, resulting in a concomitant increase in waste products that need to be managed. In this study, drying assays were conducted in a convective hot-air dryer on Arbequina olive waste cakes between 40 and 90 °C and a constant airflow of 2 m/s. Proximate composition, dietary fiber, minerals, fatty acids, tocopherols, phytochemicals as well as antioxidant activity as DPPH, FRAP and ORAC values were determined. These six drying temperatures were found to have variable effects on general composition of the residues. Fatty acids were found in high concentration at low temperatures where oleic acid was the most abundant and α-tocopherol was the most prevalent form of vitamin E. The phytochemical content (total phenolics, flavonoids and flavanols) represented an average of 20.7% of the waste cake. Fresh cake showed the highest polyphenols and flavonoids content whereas flavanols content was higher at all drying temperatures. 3-Hydroxytyrosol was the most abundant phenolic compound, and found in higher abundance in samples dried at 90 °C. The antioxidant capacity measured by FRAP and DPPH assays decreased with drying or remained unchanged when measured by ORAC assay. Given the nutritional and commercial potential of waste cakes, a drying technology for the preservation of bioactive compounds from waste products is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Proline is a vital amino acid, commonly distributed in all plants. It is widely accumulated in plants under salt stress. It has been suggested that foliar application of proline has an important effect in reducing destructive effects of non-living stresses on plants. On the other hand, an excessive amount of free proline has negative effects on cell growth as well as protein functions. In this study, the six-months-old plantlets of three olive cultivars, including Arbequina, Arbosana and Koroneiki were sprayed with proline at 0, 100, and 200 mg/L for three times in intervals of 10 days. In addition, the samples were subjected to salinity at 0, 50, 100 and 200 mM sodium chloride for five months. Measurement of morphological characteristics of stems and leaves was conducted in three stages (4, 12 and 20 weeks after treatment). The results showed that stem length and number of nodes gradually increased over time at all concentrations of proline. Furthermore, at stage 3, stem diameter, number of leaves and branch number increased and leaf width decreased. The highest leaf thickness was observed at stage 1. However, no significant difference was found among the proline concentrations in the mentioned traits in any experimental stage. Plants sprayed with proline were later encountered the increased leaf necrosis. At stage 3, the control plants had a lower percentage of abscission than proline-treated plants. At stage 2, plants sprayed with proline had lower leaf thickness than control plants. Throughout the experiment, salinity, especially 200 mM, reduced cumulative stem length, number of shoots, internode length, number of nodes and number of leaves. The highest percentages of leaf abscission and necrosis, as well as the highest leaf thickness were observed at 200mM NaCl treatment. In general, despite the fact that proline increased in the plants under stress conditions, its external application was not significantly effective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The production of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) in Brazil developed quite recently, and information on commercial Brazilian EVOO’s typical features is very scarce. In just one of the previously published works on Brazilian olive oil, the assessed samples were commercially available. In this study, a comprehensive characterization of EVOO samples acquired at local stores (at Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande do Sul, from the two most prevalent cultivars, Arbequina and Koroneiki) was carried out considering the most relevant quality parameters, antioxidant capacity, oxidative stability, total phenolic content, fatty acid composition, and minor component metabolic profiling. The latter included: (1) the determination of individual phenolic compounds (belonging to four diverse chemical classes) and triterpenic acids by means of a powerful multi-class reversed-phase LC-MS method; (2) the quantitative profiling of tocopherols, phytosterols, and pigments by normal-phase LC-DAD/fluorescence; and (3) the quantitative appraisal of the volatile pattern of the oils by solid-phase microextraction (SPME)-gas chromatography (GC)-MS. By applying these methods, the concentrations of approximately 70 minor compounds were determined in commercial EVOOs from Brazil. To the best of our knowledge, the content of a very large number of phenolic compounds of those determined in the current report (mainly secoiridoids), the three triterpenic acids (maslinic, betulinic, and oleanolic acids), and the individual chlorophyll derivatives had not been previously evaluated in Brazilian EVOOs. The present work provides a broad picture of the compositional profile and other parameters of relevance of selected commercial Brazilian EVOOs available on local markets, describing their typicity and most particular features, some of which are known to have potential impacts on consumers’ health.

An increase in olive oil consumption has occurred worldwide in the last decades and has resulted in more land area being dedicated to olive orchards in several southern hemisphere countries. In order to achieve sustainable productivity under the increasing water scarcity, optimal water use is essential. Thus, a field experiment was conducted during four consecutive growing seasons (2010–2011 to 2013–2014) to evaluate olive oil quality in response to irrigation cut-off strategies applied after fruit set using midday stem water potential (Ψ stem ) thresholds in a super-high density olive orchard (cv. Arbequina) located in the Pencahue Valley, Maule Region, Chile. The experimental design was completely randomized with four treatments and four replicates. In treatment T 1 (control), Ψ stem was between −1.4 and −2.2 MPa (100% of actual evapotranspiration) throughout the season, while the T 2 , T 3 and T 4 treatments did not receive irrigation from fruit set until they reached a Ψ stem threshold of approximately −3.5, −5.0, and −6.0 MPa, respectively. Once these thresholds were reached, irrigation was reestablished and maintained as T 1 in all treatments until olives were harvested. Fruit oil and water content (%) at harvest were not affected by the different treatments. Free acidity was also not affected, while peroxide and extinction coefficients only showed minor differences between treatments that were within the limits established for commercial extra virgin oil quality. Total polyphenols at harvest were much higher in the water deficit treatments and showed a significant linear relationship each year with the water stress integral. The percentages of the main fatty acids were not affected by the treatments. However, they were significantly different between seasons. Sensory tests indicated that the higher total polyphenol content positively contributed to more pronounced bitter and pungent attributes of olive oil from trees with higher water deficit. Thus, the irrigation cut-off strategies evaluated at our four-year study can be an excellent management tool to both improve the oil quality of cv. Arbequina and reduce water use in super-high density orchard. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A oliveira (Olea europaea L.) é uma planta característica da região Mediterrânea que teve seu cultivo disseminado para diversos países do mundo, devido ao grande interesse na produção de olivas e de seu azeite, ricos em ácidos graxos essenciais. As folhas da oliveira podem ser um importante subproduto gerado pela poda das árvores, pois apresentam quantidade significativa de compostos fenólicos e ácidos graxos benéficos à saúde. Tendo em vista a importância da constituição química das folhas de oliveira e o recente cultivo no sul do Brasil, este trabalho teve como objetivo fazer um estudo exploratório sobre a composição centesimal, compostos fenólicos totais, ácidos graxos e minerais presentes nas folhas da cultivar 'Arbequina', cultivada em Caçapava do Sul, RS. Os resultados encontrados mostraram que as folhas possuem 8,14±0,24% de lipídios totais, sendo que os ácidos graxos poli-insaturados representaram mais da metade do teor total de ácidos graxos, com elevada concentração de ácido linolênico (18:3n3, 46,7%) que está presente no azeite, normalmente em concentrações próximas a 1%. A concentração de compostos fenólicos totais foi de 30,21±0,31mg GAE g-1 e os minerais predominantes nas folhas foram Ca, K, Mg, P e S (entre 1153 e 11448µg g-1). A concentração de sódio encontrada foi baixa (65,4±5,20µg g-1). Esses resultados demonstram que as folhas de oliveira cultivadas na região de Caçapava do Sul apresentam grande potencial de uso para suplementação da dieta tanto humana quanto de animais, por serem ricas em nutrientes

The health benefits of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) are related to its chemical composition and the presence of bioactive compounds with antioxidant properties. The aim of this study was to evaluate antioxidant compounds (pigments, coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) and phenolic compounds) and antioxidant properties of EVOO from the same region comparing different cultivars (Hojiblanca and Arbequina), harvest year and crop stage. Antioxidant properties of oils were studied before and after a gastrointestinal digestion process, by in vitro assays (DPPH, ABTS and FRAP) and antioxidant markers in Caco-2 cells (reactive oxygen species production). The content of bioactive compounds measured was significantly affected by cultivar and harvest year (except for carotenoids) and by the crop stage (except for coenzyme Q10). Higher amounts of coenzyme Q10 were observed in Hojiblanca than in Arbequina EVOO. Total phenol content and antioxidant properties were also different depending on cultivar and harvest year and the in vitro digestion process strongly improved antioxidant marker values. Antioxidant potential in bioaccessible fractions was mainly related to the content of coenzyme Q10 and phenolic compounds in EVOO. Chemometric analysis showed that the oils were clearly classified by cultivars, harvest and crop stage, according to the chemical composition and antioxidant activity analyzed in the present study.

There is currently an emerging production of olive oil in Brazil but it is still poorly characterized. In this study, we performed a comparative analysis of minor bioactive constituents (CoQ 10, tocopherols and phenolic compounds) in extra virgin olive oil from different regions of Brazil and Spain, of Arbequina cultivar. Significant variations ( P < 0.05) in the concentration of the compounds analyzed were observed among oils from the different growing areas, not only between Spanish and Brazilian samples but also within zones of the same country. All the oils analyzed showed a high content of CoQ 10 , which ranged from 48 to 85 mg/L. The α − tocopherol was the major isomer quantified and three main groups of phenolic compounds were identified: flavonoids (apigenin, luteolin), phenolic acids (naringenin, p-coumaric acid, vanillic acid) and phenolic alcohols (hydroxytyrosol). Climatic and geographic factors of the production zones greatly influenced the minor fraction composition; positive relationships between altitude and the level of CoQ 10 , tocopherols and phenolic compounds of the oils were observed, whereas a negative correlation with rainfalls was found. Chemometric analyses demonstrated that oils were differentiated by the chemical composition and origin area and that polyphenols (particularly hydroxytyrosol) held the major weight in the oil classification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The super high density (SHD) model is a new olive growing system characterized by earlier and higher yields, fully mechanized harvesting and reduced orchard management costs. Until recently all commercial SHD orchards were planted primarily with three varieties: ‘Arbequina’, ‘Arbosana’ and ‘Koroneiki’. To increase variety diversity, broaden available olive oil chemical and organoleptic profiles, and olive oils for marketing, minor local varieties should be evaluated for adaptability to the SHD system. This study compares multiple Sicilian native genotypes to the three current cultivars ‘Arbequina’, ‘Arbosana’ and ‘Koroneiki’. The cumulative fruit and oil production, trunk-cross section area, canopy volume, alternate bearing behavior and oil quality were evaluated in a SHD system. Among the standard cultivars ‘Koroneiki’ had significantly higher and ‘Arbequina’ average productivity respectively compared to earlier reports and was chosen as the reference for evaluating the performance of the Sicilian genotypes. Many of the genotypes investigated had olive and oil yields equal to or higher than ‘Arbequina’; ‘Abunara’ and ‘ADE’ had very high productivity. ‘Abunara’ produced a medium-high quality oil. The ‘KALAT’ selection had high productivity and low vigor, and therefore high productive efficiency. However, the oil polyphenols were low. The ‘Cerasuola’ and ‘Piricuddara’ cultivars had good productivity and a very high quality oils. These results confirm the need to evaluate and preserve local genetic resources as a strategy for improving SHD olive management and increasing olive cultivar and oil diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Production of virgin olive oil is beginning in Brazil. This paper analyzes the characteristics of the EVOO Arbequina from Brazil in comparison with Spanish Arbequina from different regions. Quality parameters, oxidative stability, pigments, colour and fatty acid profile were assessed, and relationships with geographic and climatic conditions were studied. All the samples presented good quality and met EU standards for extra-virgin olive oil, but there were significant differences between regions and countries for many of the parameters evaluated. Major differences between Brazilian and Spanish samples were observed for free acidity and colour of the oils, as well as minor variations in the fatty acid profile. The colour differences were related to rainfall, whereas the fatty acid content was strongly influenced by altitude and temperature. These results highlight the fact that geographic area and environmental factors influence the characteristics of Arbequina oil and play an important role in newly introduced cultivars. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The central reaction of chlorophyll (chl) breakdown pathway occurring during olive fruits maturation is the cleavage of the macrocycle pheophorbide a to a primary fluorescent chl catabolite (pFCC) and it is catalyzed by two enzymes: pheophorbide a oxygenase (PaO) and red chl catabolite reductase (RCCR). In subsequent steps, pFCC is converted to different fluorescent chlorophyll catabolites (FCCs) and nonfluorescent chlorophyll catabolites (NCCs). This work demonstrated that RCCR activity of olive fruits is type II. During the study of evolution of PaO and RCCR activities through the olive fruits maturation in two varieties: Hojiblanca and Arbequina, a significant increase in PaO and RCCR activity was found in ripening stage. In addition, the profile and structure of NCCs present in epicarp of this fruit was studied using HPLC/ESI-TOF-MS. Five different NCCs were defined and for the first time the enzymatic reactions implied in chlorophyll degradations in olive fruits elucidated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tree vigour is one of the most important issues in super-high density olive orchards (~1,600 tree ha-1). Tree vigour could be limited by horticultural practices such as pruning and fertilization but such practices have a limited effect and increase growing costs. The aim of this work was to test a new technique based on the application of a constriction to the trunk in order to obstruct the flow of sap in xylem and phloem. To this end, on 5 cultivars trained in a super-high density olive orchard in Central Italy, constrictions were applied by a plastic strap in 2009 and 2010, and were removed at the end of the following year. At the end of the experiment, constricted trees had smaller vegetative growth than the control trees. During the first experiment (2009), in the constriction year, yield efficiency was higher in constricted trees. In the second year, low vigour cultivars ('Arbequina', 'Maurino' and 'Moraiolo') had a consistent reduction of yield, while vigorous cultivars ('Leccino' and 'Frantoio') had similar yield but a slightly increased yield efficiency. No effect was detected in fruit characteristics, but the oil phenol content was higher in the constricted trees. In the second year experiment (2010), similar results were obtained, but yield efficiency increase and vegetative growth reduction were lighter because the trees were one year older than those of 2009 experiment. Trunk constriction was a successful technique for reducing tree vigour and enhancing tree yield efficiency, especially in vigorous cultivars. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bitter taste is a positive sensory attribute in olive oil. However, if the bitter taste is too strong, it may be perceived as a negative attribute for the consumers. The aim of this work was to design a liquid-liquid extraction using water as a solvent to decrease the total phenol content of Arbequina olive oil and as consequence its bitter taste. Different olive oil-to-water ratios were assayed and mixing was conducted by flowing nitrogen to avoid oxidation. After 15 min, a constant total phenols concentration was reached in the olive oil independently of the olive oil-to-water ratios assayed. Lower percentage of olive oil in the mix was more efficient for phenol extraction. A mathematical equation was proposed to calculate the Arbequina olive oil-to-water ratio in the mix to remove a desired phenol percentage. After removing phenols, the obtained olive oil had a similar physico-chemical quality as untreated olive oil with a similar content of phenols. Practical applications: By using obtained mathematical equations the phenolic content in Arbequina olive oil can be modulated by liquid-liquid extraction. It is a fast and easy method to achieve the desired bitterness in olive oil. When in a mill oils with high intensity of bitterness are obtained, this method could be a solution to open new markets by offering more equilibrated products for consumers not used to olive oil. Liquid-liquid extraction using water as a solvent is useful to partial removal of the total phenol content and bitterness index in Arbequina olive oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work analyzes the effect of soil salinity on olive oil quality. The chemical composition of oils extracted from young ‘Arbequina' olives subject in the field to three soil salinity levels (low-L, medium-M and high-H) was determined throughout a period of three years. A total of 30 parameters were analyzed (moisture, oil content, acidity, peroxides, ultraviolet absorbances, poliphenols, aliphatic alcohols, sterols, waxes, and fatty acid composition). Soil salinity was measured on fourteen different dates with an electromagnetic sensor. Overall, salinity increased oil content (+15 % in H with respect to L) and decreased aliphatic alcohols (-29 %) and palmitoleic acid (-32 %) (values significant at P0,05). In summary, olive oil quality was practically independent of soil salinity and, according to the prevailing legislation, all the oils were classified as “extra virgin”.

The chemical composition of virgin olive oils (95 samples) from Aragón (Spain) from two successive crop seasons (1997/98 and 1998/99) and its relationship with quality and oxidative stability is examined. The main characteristics were: free acidity 0.5 (% oleic acid), peroxide value 11.8 meq/kg, K232 1.92, K270 0.13, oxidative stability 51.4 h (Rancimat method), and antioxidant phenolic substances 168.5 mg/kg (as caffeic acid). From the distribution of fatty acids, a high percentage of linoleic acid (9.46 %) and a low level of stearic (2.10 %) and arachidic (0.36 %) acids, is worth noting. The effect of sample origin (7 productive regions from Aragón), olive variety (Empeltre and Arbequina), and the different steps through processing are also investigated. However, the major factor affecting results was the plague of olive flies during 1997/98 crop season.

[Display omitted] • Virgin olive oil was highly stable during consecutive deep-frying of French fries. • Using complementary RP and NP-LC methods enabled the assessment of 56 VOO compounds. • Toping-up the fryer with fresh oil replenished the frying oil with VOO antioxidants. • VOO bioactive compounds were transferred to the fries regardless the oil blend used. • Frying in Arbequina, higher amounts of VOO metabolites were transferred to fries. Deep-frying in virgin olive oil (VOO) is favorable due to its desirable composition and high content of bioactive compounds that can be transferred to fried food. The main goal of this work was to investigate the evolution of VOO metabolic profile during consecutive deep-frying cycles and assess the transfer of metabolites to French fries. The evolution of 56 compounds was monitored by two complementary liquid chromatography methods, using mass spectrometry, diode array, and fluorescence detectors. Sterols and lignans were remarkably stable (greater than 70 % retention in frying oil). Seven out of the ten compounds' classes identified in the oil were transferred to the fried food. Potatoes fried in Arbequina oil from Brazil incorporated the highest amounts of VOO minor components, among the analyzed samples, and sterols presented the highest transfer rate. French fries were enriched by VOO bioactive compounds during deep-frying, especially on the first two days, improving their nutritional value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A high density olive orchard represents a new planting system that requires cultivars with low vegetative vigor, such as Arbequina and Arbosana varieties. Different cultivars provide different performances in such orchards. This research was performed in order to determine the behavior of the new olive variety Tosca 07 in a commercial, high density orchard. The quality of Tosca 07 olive oils in three different maturity degrees during two crops seasons by physico-chemical and nutritional characterization were compared with Arbequina olive oils obtained from trees grown under the same conditions. Tosca 07 is a very interesting olive variety for high density orchards. Because of its early ripening, it would be suitable for early harvesting, and this could be interesting for avoiding cold temperatures, frost, etc. Tosca 07 olive oils have also demonstrated a very suitable chemical composition in comparison with Arbequina olive oils, especially for their high content of antioxidant compounds (α-tocopherol and pigments) present within the oils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background The aim of this work was to evaluate the evolution of the quality of extra virgin olive oil obtained from a super-high-density Arbequina orchard, under a drip irrigation system, throughout the ripening process. For this objective, physicochemical, nutritional and sensory parameters were studied. In addition, the oxidative stability, pigment content and colour evolution of olive oil were analysed during the ripening process. Results Free acidity increased slightly throughout the ripening process, while peroxide value and extinction coefficient decreased. Total phenol content and oxidative stability showed a similar trend, increasing at the beginning of ripening up to a maximum and thereafter decreasing. α-Tocopherol and pigment contents decreased with ripening, leading to changes in colour coordinates. Sensory parameters were correlated with total phenol content, following a similar trend throughout the maturation process. Conclusion By sampling and monitoring the ripeness index weekly, it would be possible to determine an optimal harvesting time for olives according to the industrial yield and the physicochemical, nutritional and sensory properties of the olive oil. © 2012 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phenolic compounds have a high importance in olive oil because of their effect on shelf life and sensory properties. This study reports on the HPLC profiles of the phenolic compounds of virgin olive oils obtained from Arbequina olives from the harvesting in a super-intensive orchard under a linear irrigation system. In addition, phenolic content, carotenoid and chlorophyllic pigments, and oxidative stability were analyzed. Total phenol content and 3,4-DHPEA-EDA increased up to a maximum throughout the ripening process. The simple phenols tyrosol and hydroxytyrosol acetate increased throughout the ripening process, however, there was not found a clear trend in hydroxytyrosol content. Minor constituents such as vanillic acid and p-coumaric acid increased up to a maximum and then decreased, since vanillin decreased progressively throughout the time of harvest. 3,4-DHPEA-EDA and lignans were present in considerable amounts in the studied samples, while oleuropein aglycone was present in a low amount. Total phenol content and oil stability followed the same trend throughout the study, so a very good correlation was established between them. Total secoiridoids and, specifically, 3,4-DHPEA-EDA seemed to be responsible for oil stability. The pigment content decreased during ripening, and not a positive correlation was found between pigments and oil stability. Practical applications: The results can be used to determine the best time for harvesting in order to obtain olive oils with different phenols and pigment contents. This is important for sensory characteristics of the olive oils and also for olive oil stability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Olive oil yield and its components (fruit number, average fruit weight and fruit oil concentration) depend on crop load and source–sink ratios as affected by environmental conditions, management and the alternate bearing typical of the species. The aims of this work were to: (i) establish quantitative relationships between oil yield and its components as affected by fruit load in a high-yielding production system, (ii) analyse the dynamics of fruit weight and fruit oil concentration in terms of rates and durations, and (iii) explore the relationships between the dynamics of oil and water in fruit. In a fully irrigated olive orchard in Mendoza (32° S), Argentina, cv. Arbequina trees with similar crown volume and three fruit loads (3-fold range) were monitored during two seasons. Oil yield was positively associated with both fruit number and fruit fresh weight, but not with fruit oil concentration. Across seasons and fruit loads, fruit yield increased linearly with fruit number at ∼1.5kg per thousand fruit and reached a maximum ∼60kgtree−1 (or 25tha−1) at a fruit load of 32,700 fruit tree−1. The fruit filling rate was affected by fruit load, while the duration of fruit growth and the dynamics of oil and water concentration were unaffected by fruit load. Fruit water concentration reached a minimum at the onset of Stage III of fruit growth, which was marked by a rapid increase in oil concentration. Fruit fresh weight and oil weight increased with source–sink ratio from ∼0.5 up to a threshold ∼2m3 crown per thousand fruit. In contrast, a 8-fold range of source–sink ratio did not affect fruit oil concentration. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Olive trees were warmed in open top chambers during oil accumulation. • Decreases in oil components with warming were cultivar-dependent. • Biomass partitioning shifted from fruit to leaves when heated during one season. • Total tree biomass was not affected by warming during one season. • Two seasons of warming affected fruit number and total biomass glucose equivalents. Global warming and olive expansion to new regions have increased interest in understanding how air temperature affects olive production. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate the responses of oil yield components, total biomass production, and its partitioning to a moderate temperature increase (3–4 °C) during the oil accumulation phase in young olive trees of two olive cultivars (cvs. Arbequina, Coratina). Young, potted olive trees were actively heated by 3–4 °C in open top chambers under outdoor conditions compared to near-ambient temperature in similar control chambers. The trees were warmed from final fruit set to the end of the oil accumulation phase (5 months) in one (2014–15 or 2015–16) or in two consecutive seasons. Oil yield and its components were obtained from fruit harvested at the end of the season, while the vegetative dry biomass produced was estimated from destructive harvests of entire trees before and after a warming period. Glucose equivalents (GE) were also calculated for both oil yield and vegetative growth. Warming during the oil accumulation phase in one season led to some significant temperature x cultivar interactions for oil components. Individual fruit dry weight was reduced by warming to a greater extent in cv. Coratina than in cv. Arbequina, while fruit oil concentration was decreased more in cv. Arbequina. Significant decreases in oil yield were also observed for both cultivars. Warmed trees had a greater net leaf area increase than control trees when heated during the oil accumulation phase for one season (2014–15 or 2015–16), and allocated more GE to vegetative organs than to fruit in 2015–16. However, total tree biomass was not affected by warming. Warming trees the first season led to reduced flowering the following spring, and directly contributed to a temperature x cultivar interaction for fruit number during the second warming period with a 66% reduction in fruit number in warmed trees of cv. Arbequina and very low fruit number in all cv. Coratina trees. In contrast to warming during one season, total tree biomass GE decreased across cultivars when warming was performed in the oil accumulation phase for two consecutive seasons. The results suggest that cultivars should be carefully selected for new, warmer growing regions and that global warming may ultimately reduce oil yields and affect cultivar selection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Arbequina table olives are produced according to a traditional process involving an spontaneous fermentation in brine. The aim of this study was to evaluate for the first time the different microorganism populations in brine during the processing of Arbequina table olives. Yeasts were the main organisms involved in fermentation but lactic acid bacteria were important when the olives were being matured before packaging. The main yeast species identified were Candida boidinii, Candida diddensiae, Candida membranaefaciens, Kluyveromyces lactis, Pichia kluyveri, Pichia membranaefaciens and Rhodotolura glutinis. Lactobacillus pentosus and Lactobacillus paraplantarum were the species of lactic acid bacteria involved in the process. Some of the microbial species identified in this work have not been previously reported in the fermentation processes of table olives. Moreover, no relevant differences in microbial species diversity were observed at different depths of the vat. Nevertheless, the development of lactic acid bacteria was delayed in deep brine. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]