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Background: Farm exposures in early life reduce the risks for childhood allergic diseases and asthma. There is less information about how farm exposures relate to respiratory illnesses and mucosal immune development., Objective: We hypothesized that children raised in farm environments have a lower incidence of respiratory illnesses over the first 2 years of life than nonfarm children. We also analyzed whether farm exposures or respiratory illnesses were related to patterns of nasal cell gene expression., Methods: The Wisconsin Infant Study Cohort included farm (n = 156) and nonfarm (n = 155) families with children followed to age 2 years. Parents reported prenatal farm and other environmental exposures. Illness frequency and severity were assessed using illness diaries and periodic surveys. Nasopharyngeal cell gene expression in a subset of 64 children at age 2 years was compared to farm exposure and respiratory illness history., Results: Farm versus nonfarm children had nominally lower rates of respiratory illnesses (rate ratio 0.82 [95% CI, 0.69, 0.97]) with a stepwise reduction in illness rates in children exposed to 0, 1, or ≥2 animal species, but these trends were nonsignificant in a multivariable model. Farm exposures and preceding respiratory illnesses were positively related to nasal cell gene signatures for mononuclear cells and innate and antimicrobial responses., Conclusions: Maternal and infant exposure to farms and farm animals was associated with nonsignificant trends for reduced respiratory illnesses. Nasal cell gene expression in a subset of children suggests that farm exposures and respiratory illnesses in early life are associated with distinct patterns of mucosal immune expression., (Copyright © 2024 American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The function of antibodies, namely the identification and neutralization of pathogens, is mediated by their antigen binding site (Fab). In contrast, the subsequent signal transduction for activation of the immune system is mediated by the fragment crystallizable (Fc) region, which interacts with receptors or other components of the immune system, such as the complement system. This aspect of binding and interaction is more precise, readjusted by covalently attached glycan structures close to the hinge region of immunoglobulins (Ig). This fine-tuning of Ig and its actual state of knowledge is the topic of this review. It describes the function of glycosylation at Ig in general and the associated changes due to corresponding glycan structures. We discuss the functionality of IgG glycosylation during different physiological statuses, like aging, lactation and pathophysiological processes. Further, we point out what is known to date about Ig glycosylation in farm animals and how new achievements in vaccination may contribute to improved animal welfare., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Zlatina and Galuska.)

Viral diseases cause serious economic loss in farmed animals industry. However, the efficacy of remedies for viral infection in farmed animals is limited, and treatment strategies are generally lacking for aquatic animals. Interactions of commensal microbiota and viral infection have been studied in recent years, demonstrating a third player in the interaction between hosts and viruses. Here, we discuss recent developments in the research of interactions between commensal bacteria and viral infection, including both promotion and inhibition effect of commensal bacteria on viral pathogenesis, as well as the impact of viral infection on commensal microbiota. The antiviral effect of commensal bacteria is mostly achieved through priming or regulation of the host immune responses, involving differential microbial components and host signaling pathways, and gives rise to various antiviral probiotics. Moreover, we summarize studies related to the interaction between commensal bacteria and viral infection in farmed animals, including pigs, chickens, fish and invertebrate species. Further studies in this area will deepen our understanding of antiviral immunity of farmed animals in the context of commensal microbiota, and promote the development of novel strategies for treatment of viral diseases in farmed animals., (© 2021. Science China Press and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Competing Interests: Personal fees from Pharmaventures, OM Pharma S. A., Peptinnovate Ltd., Böhringer Ingelheim International GmbH. Patent LU101064: Barn dust extract for the prevention and treatment of diseases pending, Patent EP2361632: Specific environmental bacteria for the protection from and/or the treatment of allergic, chronic inflammatory and/or autoimmune disorders with royalties paid to ProtectImmun GmbH, Patent EP 1411977: Composition containing bacterial antigens used for the prophylaxis and the treatment of allergic diseases. licensed to ProtectImmun GmbH, Patent EP1637147: Stable dust extract for allergy protection licensed to ProtectImmun GmbH, Patent EP 1964570: Pharmaceutical compound to protect against allergies and inflammatory diseases licensed to ProtectImmun GmbH.

Background: Schistosomiasis japonica is a severe zoonosis. Domestic animals are the primary source of infection and play an important role in disease transmission. Surveillance and diagnosis play key roles in schistosomiasis control; however, current techniques for the surveillance and diagnosis of the disease have limitations. In this study, we developed a novel fluorescence immunochromatographic assay (FICA) strip to detect anti-Schistosoma japonicum antibodies in host serum., Methods: A FICA strip was developed for the diagnosis of Schistosoma japonicum in domestic animals. Streptococcus protein G (SPG) and soluble egg antigen (SEA) were transferred onto a nitrocellulose (NC) membrane to form the control line (C) and the test line (T), respectively. With fluorescence activity as well as binding activity to multispecies IgG, the recombinant protein rSPG-RFP was expressed and employed as an antibody indicator in the FICA strips., Results: The dual gene fusion plasmid was verified by PCR and restriction enzyme digestion. The expressed recombinant protein was 39.72 kDa in size, which was consistent with the predicted molecular weight. The western blot results showed binding activity between rSPG-RFP and IgGs from different hosts. Fluorescence microscopy also showed the fluorescence activity of the protein present. The affinity constant (Ka) values of rSPG-RFP with rabbit, donkey, mouse and goat IgG were 1.9 × 10 5 , 4.1 × 10 5 , 1.7 × 10 5 and 5.4 × 10 5 , respectively. Moreover, based on the recombinant protein, the test strip for detecting S. japonicum in buffaloes could distinguish positive from negative serum. The lower limit of detection of the FICA strip was 1:10,000. Compared with ELISA, the FICA strips exhibited similar results in the diagnosis of infection in clinical bovine serum samples, with a kappa value of 0.9660 and P < 0.01. The cross-reactivities of the FICA strips with Haemonchus contortus and Schistosoma turkestanicum (30.15% and 91.66%, respectively) were higher than those of ELISA (26.98% and 87.5%, respectively)., Conclusions: Based on the rSPG-RFP protein that we developed, strip detection can be completed within 15 min. Heightened sensitivity allows the strip to accurately identify schistosome antibodies in serum. In conclusion, this method is convenient, feasible, rapid and effective for detecting S. japonicum.

Two types of cholinesterases (ChEs) are present in mammalian blood and tissues: acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE). While AChE regulates neurotransmission by hydrolyzing acetylcholine at the postsynaptic membranes and neuromuscular junctions, BChE in plasma has been suggested to be involved in detoxifying toxic compounds. This study was undertaken to establish the identity of circulating ChE activity in plasmas from domestic animals (bovine, ovine, caprine, porcine and equine) by assessing sensitivity to AChE-specific inhibitors (BW284c51 and edrophonium) and BChE-specific inhibitors (dibucaine, ethopropazine and Iso-OMPA) as well as binding to anti-FBS AChE monoclonal antibodies (MAbs). Based on the inhibition of ChE activity by ChE-specific inhibitors, it was determined that bovine, ovine and caprine plasma predominantly contain AChE, while porcine and equine plasma contain BChE. Three of the anti-FBS AChE MAbs, 4E5, 5E8 and 6H9, inhibited 85-98% of enzyme activity in bovine, ovine and caprine plasma, confirming that the esterase in these plasmas was AChE. These MAbs did not bind to purified recombinant human or mouse AChE, demonstrating that these MAbs were specific for AChEs from ruminant species. These MAbs did not inhibit the activity of purified human BChE, or ChE activity in porcine and equine plasma, confirming that the ChE in these plasmas was BChE. Taken together, these results demonstrate that anti-FBS AChE MAbs can serve as useful tools for distinguishing between AChEs from ruminant and non-ruminant species and BChEs., (Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes are critical for disease resistance or susceptibility responsible for host-pathogen interactions determined mainly by extensive polymorphisms in the MHC genes. Here, we examined the diversity and phylogenetic pattern of MHC haplotypes reconstructed using three MHC-linked microsatellite markers in 55 populations of five Bovidae species and compared them with those based on neutral autosomal microsatellite markers (NAMs). Three-hundred-and-forty MHC haplotypes were identified in 1453 Bovidae individuals, suggesting significantly higher polymorphism and heterozygosity compared with those based on NAMs. The ambitious boundaries in population differentiation (phylogenetic network, pairwise F ST and STRUCTURE analyses) within and between species assessed using the MHC haplotypes were different from those revealed by NAMs associated closely with speciation, geographical distribution, domestication and management histories. In addition, the mean F ST was significantly correlated negatively with the number of observed alleles (N A ), observed (H O ) and expected (H E ) heterozygosity and polymorphism information content (PIC) (P < 0.05) in the MHC haplotype dataset while there was no correction of the mean F ST estimates (P> 0.05) between the MHC haplotype and NAMs datasets. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) revealed a lower percentage of total variance (PTV) between species/groups based on the MHC-linked microsatellites than NAMs. Therefore, it was inferred that individuals within populations accumulated as many MHC variants as possible to increase their heterozygosity and thus the survival rate of their affiliated populations and species, which eventually reduced population differentiation and thereby complicated their classification and phylogenetic relationship inference. In summary, host-pathogen coevolution and heterozygote advantage, rather than demographic history, act as key driving forces shaping the MHC diversity within the populations and determining the interspecific MHC diversity., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest Authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: We estimated the association between occupational exposures to five different organic dusts: wood, animal, paper, textile and flour dust and the risk of developing rheumatoid arthritis (RA)., Methods: This population-based case-control study analysed 12 582 incident cases and 129 335 controls. Participants were identified from national public authority and quality registers. Census data on occupations were collected 1960-2010 and we estimated the exposure to organic dust with the help of job-exposure matrices. We used logistic regression to assess the OR of seropositive or seronegative RA. Estimates were adjusted for the matching variables (sex, county, age and index year), education and occupational silica exposure., Results: Exposure to animal dust was associated with an increased risk of RA among both men and women. The OR was 1.2 (95% CI=1.1 to 1.4) for seropositive RA and 1.3 (95% CI=1.1 to 1.5) for seronegative RA among ever exposed participants compared with unexposed. The risk increased with duration of exposure for seropositive RA, and participants who had been exposed in five or more censuses had an OR of 1.6 (95% CI=1.1 to 2.2, p for trend=0.003). Exposure to textile dust also generated a significant dose-response relationship for seropositive RA (p for trend=0.014). We detected no association between exposure to wood, paper or flour dust and risk of RA., Conclusions: Overall, exposure to animal dust and textile dust was associated with an increased risk of developing RA. These observations give further support to the notion that airborne exposures are involved in the aetiology of RA., Competing Interests: Competing interests: LA have for the EIRA study been supported by research grants from the Swedish Medical Research Council; the Swedish Council for Health, Working Life and Welfare; King Gustaf V:s 80-year foundation; the Swedish Rheumatism Foundation; Stockholm County Council; the insurance company AFA Insurance and the IMI-supported RTCure projects, unrelated to the submitted work. PW has received research grants from AFA Insurance, unrelated to the submitted work. PG has received research grants from the Swedish Research Council for Health, Working Life and Welfare, unrelated to the submitted work. LA received grants from the Swedish Research Council for Health, Working Life and Welfare (grant no: 2013-0194) and AFA Insurance (grant number 120299) to support the present study., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2019. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Domestic pigs and wild suids are susceptible to Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis) infection and may even serve as reservoir hosts in some situations. Therefore, detection of infected animals is important for understanding their role in the epidemiology of the disease as well as for management and control of bovine tuberculosis. Infected suids develop strong humoral responses, making serological screening a feasible approach to disease surveillance. However, to optimize sensitivity of the antibody assays, it is necessary to identify and incorporate immunodominant antigens recognized by the target species. The objective of this study was to characterize the antigen recognition by three suid species in a commercially available serological test, DPP VetTB Assay. Serum samples from naturally M. bovis-infected domestic pigs, wild boar and common warthogs were tested. MPB83 protein appeared to be the immunodominant antigen recognized by antibodies in all three species. Overall test sensitivity was increased in wild suids when seroreactivity to CFP10/ESAT-6 antigen was included. Infected animals with visible lesions showed more robust antibody responses than those without gross lesions. The high sensitivity and specificity of the DPP VetTB Assay demonstrated in the present study supports the utility of antibody tests employing these antigens in serological screening of the suid species for M. bovis infection., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Dromedary camels are natural host of the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). However, there are limited studies of MERS-CoV infection of other domestic mammals exposed to infected dromedaries. We expanded our surveillance among camels in Egypt, Tunisia, and Senegal to include other domestic mammalian species in contact with infected camels. A total of 820 sera and 823 nasal swabs from cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, buffaloes, mules, and horses were collected. Swabs were tested using RT-PCR and virus RNA-positive samples were genetically sequenced and phylogenetically analysed. Sera were screened using virus microneutralization tests and positive sera (where available) were confirmed using plaque reduction neutralization tests (PRNT). We detected 90% PRNT confirmed MERS-CoV antibody in 35 (55.6%) of 63 sera from sheep collected from Senegal, two sheep (1.8%) of 114 in Tunisia and a goat (0.9%) of 107 in Egypt, with titres ranging from 1:80 to ≥1:320. We detected MERS-CoV RNA in swabs from three sheep (1.2%) of 254 and five goats (4.1%) of 121 from Egypt and Senegal, as well as one cow (1.9%) of 53 and three donkeys (7.1%) of 42 from Egypt. Partial sequences of the RT-PCR amplicons confirmed specificity of the results. This study showed that domestic livestock in contact with MERS-CoV infected camels may be at risk of infection. We recommend expanding current MERS-CoV surveillance in animals to include other livestock in close contact with dromedary camels. The segregation of camels from other livestock in farms and live animal markets may need to be considered.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a zoonotic virus which circulates in pigs and wild boars as main reservoir species. To reveal the infection rate in carnivores, we have carried out a monitoring study of raccoons, raccoon dogs, dogs and cats sampled in Brandenburg, Germany. In summary, 53.8% (43 of 80) of the raccoons, 34.3% (25 of 73) of the raccoon dogs, 56.6% (47 of 83) of dogs and 32.3% (21 of 65) of cats were tested positive for HEV-specific antibodies. No viral RNA could be detected. This first description of anti-HEV antibodies in raccoons and raccoon dogs worldwide and in dogs and cats in Germany highlights the natural host range expansion of HEV., (© 2018 Blackwell Verlag GmbH.)

Pestiviruses including Bovine viral diarrhea virus type 1 (BVDV-1), BVDV-2 and Border disease virus (BDV) have been reported in both sheep and cattle populations, together with the HoBi-like, an emerging group of pestiviruses. Pestivirus control programs in the United States have focused on the control of BVDV-1 and 2. The incidence of pestivirus infection in sheep in the United States and the risk of transmission between cattle and sheep populations are unknown. The aim of this study was to perform serological surveillance for pestivirus exposure in sheep from an important sheep producing state in the Unites States, Wyoming. For this, sera from 500 sheep, collected across the state of Wyoming (US) in 2015-2016, were examined by comparative virus neutralization assay against four species/proposed species of pestiviruses: BVDV-1, BVDV-2, BDV and HoBi-like virus. Rates of exposure varied between geographic regions within the state. The overall pestivirus prevalence of antibodies was 5.6%. Antibodies were most frequently detected against BVDV-1 (4%), and the highest antibody titers were also against BVDV-1. Data from this study highlights understanding of the dynamics of sheep pestivirus exposure, consideration of reference strains used for VN assays, transmission patterns, and potential vaccination history should be taken into account in implementation of control measures against pestiviruses in sheep and for successful BVDV control programs in cattle., (Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Trypanosoma evansi, the causative agent of surra, is widespread in domestic livestock and wildlife in South East Asia. Surra can affect cattle, buffaloes, horses and also Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Despite the 'threatened to extinction' CITES status of elephant, surra's impact has not been thoroughly assessed yet in this species. This work offers to adapt an antibody enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) protocol, to detect Trypanosoma evansi antibodies in elephant serum. The test was validated with 365 negative-reference samples, which allowed the determination of a 16% positive threshold. The test was applied to a serological survey including 375 individuals. The estimated global seroprevalence was 2·1% (95% CI 1·1-4·2%). Therefore, surra does not appear to be endemic in Thai domestic elephants, but occasional outbreaks were reported to our laboratory during the survey period. These outbreaks seemed to be linked to close proximity to cattle or buffaloes, and led to severe clinical signs in elephants. Frequent relapses were observed after treatment with diminazene aceturate, the only trypanocide drug currently available in Thailand. Therefore, care should be taken to keep elephants away from bovine reservoirs, and to monitor the disease in this endangered species. ELISA proved to be reliable for screening purposes as well as for post-treatment monitoring.

The swine lymphocyte antigen class I (SLA I) is a highly polymorphic gene superfamily that plays an important role in swine anti-viral immune responses. However, an understanding of the highly variable sites and peptide-binding specificities of SLA I molecule is limited. In this study, a total of 27 SLA I alleles were identified from 3 Tibetan wild boars and 3 Heishan pigs. The phylogenetic relationship between the Tibetan wild boar and other breeds was analyzed using bioinformatics methods, and the highly variable sites were noted in the three dimensional structures of SLA I. Peptides from the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) and influenza A virus (IAV) were screened with a bioinformatic method and refolding assay in vitro. The superior SLA I molecules, which have the ability to combine with more peptides, were selected from the Tibetan wild boars and Heishan pigs. The results showed that the SLA I of the Tibetan wild boars was not divergent from other pig breeds and that high-variation sites were mostly located in the peptide binding groove (PBG), suggesting that high variation sites could determines the peptide-binding characteristics and would possibly influences peptide-specific CD8 + T cell recognition. The SLA I allele SLA-1*0302 (known as KY113114) of the Tibetan wild boar formed stable complexes with three PRRSV peptides, and the SLA-3*hs0202 (KJ555032) from Heishan pigs was able to bind with four IAV peptides. The results from this study may benefit vaccine development and may help control IAV and PRRSV in swine., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Epizootic haemorrhagic disease (EHD) is a vector-borne infectious viral disease of domestic and wild ruminants. EHD could spread from infected northern African countries in free territories like the EU; therefore, the availability of diagnostic assays would represent key components for adequate surveillance and control programs. In this study, the gene encoding the VP7 protein of EHD virus (EHDV) was expressed into a baculovirus-infected insect cell system. With this unpurified protein we developed a home-made competitive ELISA (cELISA) and a total number of 275 serum samples, originating from domestic and wild ruminants, were tested. 74/275 were previously shown to be positive for EHDV antibodies by a commercially available ELISA kit. A "very good" agreement was demonstrated when compared to a commercial ELISA kit (Cohen's kappa value=0.832). Samples which caused disagreement between the two assays originated from wildlife which highlights the need for further validation by using serum samples from wild animals., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Anti-HEV antibodies were detected in animals from abattoir and in farms from northeast Brazil. Our results suggest that HEV is highly disseminated in the swine population and might present a great risk to animal handlers and for consumption of raw or undercooked meat and meat products in northeast Brazil.

Background: Segmental duplications (SDs) commonly exist in plant and animal genomes, playing crucial roles in genomic rearrangement, gene innovation and the formation of copy number variants. However, they have received little attention in most livestock species., Results: Aiming at characterizing SDs across the genomes of diverse livestock species, we mapped genome-wide SDs of horse, rabbit, goat, sheep and chicken, and also enhanced the existing SD maps of cattle and pig genomes based on the most updated genome assemblies. We adopted two different detection strategies, whole genome analysis comparison and whole genome shotgun sequence detection, to pursue more convincing findings. Accordingly we identified SDs for each species with the length of from 21.7 Mb to 164.1 Mb, and 807 to 4,560 genes were harboured within the SD regions across different species. More interestingly, many of these SD-related genes were involved in the process of immunity and response to external stimuli. We also found the existence of 59 common genes within SD regions in all studied species except goat. These common genes mainly consisted of both UDP glucuronosyltransferase and Interferon alpha families, implying the connection between SDs and the evolution of these gene families., Conclusions: Our findings provide insights into livestock genome evolution and offer rich genomic sources for livestock genomic research.

Physicians and veterinarians have many opportunities to partner in promoting the well-being of people and their pets, especially by addressing zoonotic diseases that may be transmitted between a pet and a human family member. Common cutaneous pet-acquired zoonoses are dermatophytosis (ringworm) and sarcoptic mange (scabies), which are both readily treated. Toxoplasmosis can be acquired from exposure to cat feces, but appropriate hygienic measures can minimize the risk to pregnant women. Persons who work with animals are at increased risk of acquiring bartonellosis (e.g., cat-scratch disease); control of cat fleas is essential to minimize the risk of these infections. People and their pets share a range of tick-borne diseases, and exposure risk can be minimized with use of tick repellent, prompt tick removal, and appropriate tick control measures for pets. Pets such as reptiles, amphibians, and backyard poultry pose a risk of transmitting Salmonella species and are becoming more popular. Personal hygiene after interacting with these pets is crucial to prevent Salmonella infections. Leptospirosis is more often acquired from wildlife than infected dogs, but at-risk dogs can be protected with vaccination. The clinical history in the primary care office should routinely include questions about pets and occupational or other exposure to pet animals. Control and prevention of zoonoses are best achieved by enhancing communication between physicians and veterinarians to ensure patients know the risks of and how to prevent zoonoses in themselves, their pets, and other people.

To evaluate the effect of selection for high laying performance on the capacity to respond to an infection with avian influenza virus (AIV), four different chicken lines were tested: A white layer and a brown layer breed originating from a commercial breeding program, and a white layer and a brown layer line maintained as a conservation flock for decades without any selection. The different chicken breeds were infected with AIV of different pathotypes (low pathogenic to high pathogenic) to evaluate and compare their immunological competence. Morbidity and mortality rates, as well as viral shedding, were investigated as parameters of virus infection. Immune cells in blood samples collected after different time points following inoculation were identified. In general, the chickens of the two phylogenetically related brown layer lines (irrespective of the performance type) were more resistant to infection with the selected AIVs, reflected by a lower mortality rate (low virulent AIV) or a prolonged length of survival before succumbing to the disease (highly virulent AIV). Corresponding to these results, CD8-positive cell counts were reduced in both white layer lines. This observation was also confirmed in an in vivo allogenic transfer experiment, in which brown layers eliminated the transferred cells in a shorter time period. In conclusion, our results do not support the theory of reduced immunological competence of high-performance layer breeds, at least against AIV infection. Instead, brown layer strains had a faster CD8-positive immune cell response after viral or allogenic stimulus than the phylogenetically distant white layers, resulting in better resistance against AIV infection.

While hepatitis E is a growing health concern in Europe, epidemiological data on hepatitis E virus (HEV) in Estonia are scarce. Along with imported HEV infections, autochthonous cases are reported from European countries. Both domestic and wild animals can be a source of human cases of this zoonosis. Here, we investigated the presence of anti-HEV antibodies and HEV RNA in domestic pigs and wild boars, as well as in pig farm workers and hunters in Estonia. Anti-HEV antibodies were detected in 234/380 (61.6%) of sera from domestic pigs and in all investigated herds, and in 81/471 (17.2%) of meat juice samples from wild boars. HEV RNA was detected by real-time PCR in 103/449 (22.9%) of fecal samples from younger domestic pigs and 13/81 (16.0%) of anti-HEV-positive wild boar samples. Analysis of sera from 67 pig farm workers and 144 hunters revealed the presence of HEV-specific IgG in 13.4 and 4.2% of the samples, respectively. No HEV RNA was detected in the human serum samples. Phylogenetic analyses of HEV sequences from domestic pigs and wild boars, based on a 245 bp fragment from the open reading frame 2 showed that all of them belonged to genotype 3. The present study demonstrates the presence of HEV in Estonian domestic pig and wild boar populations, as well as in humans who have direct regular contact with these animals. Our results suggest that HEV infections are present in Estonia and require attention.

Natural Killer (NK) cells constitute a major subset of innate lymphoid cells that do not express the T- and B-cell receptors and play an important role in antimicrobial defense. NK cells not only induce early and rapid innate immune responses, but also communicate with dendritic cells to shape the adaptive immunity, thus bridging innate and adaptive immunity. Although the functional biology of NK cells is well-documented in a variety of infections in humans and mice, their role in protecting domestic animals from infectious agents is only beginning to be understood. In this article, we summarize the current state of knowledge about the contribution of NK cells in pathogen defense in domestic animals, especially cattle and pigs. Understanding the immunobiology of NK cells will translate into strategies to manipulate these cells for preventive and therapeutic purposes., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Dendritic cells (DC) have a main function in innate immunity in that they sense infections and environmental antigens at the skin and mucosal surfaces and thereby critically influence decisions about immune activation or tolerance. As professional antigen-presenting cells, they are essential for induction of adaptive immune responses. Consequently, knowledge on this cell type is required to understand the immune systems of veterinary mammals, including cattle, sheep, pigs, dogs, cats, and horses. Recent ontogenic studies define bona fide DC as an independent lineage of hematopoietic cells originating from a common precursor. Distinct transcription factors control the development into the two subsets of classical DC and plasmacytoid DC. These DC subsets express a distinguishable transcriptome, which differs from that of monocyte-derived DC. Using a comparative approach based on phenotype and function, this review attempts to classify DC of veterinary mammals and to describe important knowledge gaps.

Background: Environmental factors during childhood are thought to play a role in the aetiolgy of Crohn's Disease (CD). However the association between age at time of exposure and the subsequent development of CD in South Africa is unknown., Methods: A case control study of all consecutive CD patients seen at 2 large inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) referral centers in the Western Cape, South Africa between September 2011 and January 2013 was performed. Numerous environmental exposures during 3 age intervals; 0-5, 6-10 and 11-18 years were extracted using an investigator administered questionnaire. An agreement analysis was performed to determine the reliability of questionnaire data for all the relevant variables., Results: This study included 194 CD patients and 213 controls. On multiple logistic regression analysis, a number of childhood environmental exposures during the 3 age interval were significantly associated with the risk of developing CD. During the age interval 6-10 years, never having had consumed unpasteurized milk (OR = 5.84; 95% CI, 2.73-13.53) and never having a donkey, horse, sheep or cow on the property (OR = 2.48; 95% CI, 1.09-5.98) significantly increased the risk of developing future CD. During the age interval 11-18 years, an independent risk-association was identified for; never having consumed unpasteurized milk (OR = 2.60; 95% CI, 1.17-6.10) and second-hand cigarette smoke exposure (OR = 1.93; 95% CI, 1.13-3.35)., Conclusion: This study demonstrates that both limited microbial exposures and exposure to second-hand cigarette smoke during childhood is associated with future development of CD.

Toxoplasma gondii is a cosmopolitan protozoan parasite that infects a wide range of mammal and bird species. Common infection leads to high economic (e.g., abortions in sheep) and human (e.g., congenital toxoplasmosis or neurotoxoplasmosis in humans) losses. With one exception (Toxovax for sheep), there are no vaccines to prevent human or animal toxoplasmosis. The paper presents the current state and challenges in the development of a vaccine against toxoplasmosis, designed for farm animals either bred for consumption or commonly kept on farms and involved in parasite transmission. So far, the trials have mostly revolved around conventional vaccines and, compared with the research using laboratory animals (mainly mice), they have not been very numerous. However, the results obtained are promising and could be a good starting point for developing an effective vaccine to prevent toxoplasmosis.

The exploitation of the genetic factors affecting the health status of farm animals represents an alternative approach to controlling the diseases caused by microbial pathogens. The determination of innate immunity based on the genotype of the germplasm cells is a constraint for specificity but becomes an advantage in breeding schemes. The structural deviations among Toll-like receptors (TLRs), as the most frequently studied innate immunity components, have been documented at all levels, i.e., interspecific, inter- and intravarietal, in the main farm species. The current computational methods facilitate the prediction of the functional consequences of the observed mutations. Subsequently, these predictions can be verified through immunological responsiveness and population-wide association studies. The frequency and haplotype grouping of individual polymorphisms are used to track the origin and selection coefficient as independent indicators of functional changes. The Toll-like receptor variants associated with mastitis and mycobacterial infection have been identified in cattle, consequently, the targeting of these proteins in breeding could contribute to disease control. The range of infections affected by TLR polymorphisms suggests that the improvement of innate resistance is feasible in more species. Thus, the traditional breeds and wild populations should be regarded as the resources of genetic variability accessible for these purposes., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Domestic ducks play an important role in the epidemiology of H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses. Consequently, successful control of H5N1 HPAI in ducks is important for the eradication of the disease in poultry and in preventing infections in humans. Domestic ducks, however, include different species and breeds, and the susceptibility to infection, disease and response to vaccination can vary depending on the species and age of the bird. Most domestic duck species are descendants of mallard ducks (Anas platyrhynchos), but in Asian countries Muscovy ducks (Cairina moschata) are also commonly farmed. Current vaccines and vaccination practices are insufficient for the control of H5N1 HPAI virus infections in domestic waterfowl and new vaccination strategies are needed. Although vaccination has proven effective in protecting ducks against disease, shedding of the virus still occurs in clinically healthy vaccinated populations. To improve protection of ducks against H5N1 HPAI, vaccination programs must take into account the susceptibility of ducks to circulating viruses and the particular production systems and husbandry practices of the country. Vaccination needs to be implemented as part of a comprehensive control strategy that also includes biosecurity, surveillance, education and elimination of infected poultry., (Published by Elsevier B.V.)

We have recently described the antiviral effect in mice of in vitro-transcribed RNAs mimicking structural domains in the non-coding regions of the foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) genome RNA. These small, synthetic and non-infectious RNA molecules (ncRNAs) are potent type-I interferon (IFN) inducers in vivo. In this work, the immunomodulatory effect of the ncRNA corresponding to the internal ribosome entry site (IRES) on immunization with two different FMD vaccine formulations, both based on inactivated virus, including or not a commercial adjuvant, was analyzed in the mice model. The effect of the time interval between RNA inoculation and immunization was also studied. RNA delivery consistently increased the titers of specific anti-FMDV antibodies, including neutralizing antibodies, elicited after vaccination. Moreover, at day 2 after immunization, significant differences in mean antibody titers could be detected between the groups of mice receiving either vaccine co-administered with the RNA and the control group, unlike those immunized with the vaccine alone. When vaccinated mice were challenged with FMDV, the mean values of viral load were lower in the groups receiving the RNA together with the vaccine. Our results show the enhancing effect of the IRES RNA on the immune response elicited after vaccination and suggest the potential of this molecule as an adjuvant for new FMD vaccine design., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Protection of domestic animals against parasitic infections remains a major challenge in most of the developing countries, especially in the surge of drug resistant strains. In this circumstance vaccination seems to be the sole practical strategy to combat parasites. Most of the presently available live or killed parasitic vaccines possess many disadvantages. Thus, expression of parasitic antigens has seen a continued interest over the past few decades. However, only a limited success was achieved using bacterial, yeast, insect and mammalian expression systems. This is witnessed by an increasing number of reports on transgenic plant expression of previously reported and new antigens. Oral delivery of plant-made vaccines is particularly attractive due to their exceptional advantages. Moreover, the regulatory burden for veterinary vaccines is less compared to human vaccines. This led to an incredible investment in the field of transgenic plant vaccines for veterinary purpose. Plant based vaccine trials have been conducted to combat various significant parasitic diseases such as fasciolosis, schistosomosis, poultry coccidiosis, porcine cycticercosis and ascariosis. Besides, passive immunization by oral delivery of antibodies expressed in transgenic plants against poultry coccidiosis is an innovative strategy. These trials may pave way to the development of promising edible veterinary vaccines in the near future. As the existing data regarding edible parasitic vaccines are scattered, an attempt has been made to assemble the available literature., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

For many years, microbial adjuncts have been used to supplement the diets of farm animals and humans. They have evolved since the 1990s to become known as probiotics, i.e. functional food with health benefits. After the discovery of a possible link between manipulation of gut microflora in mice and obesity, a focus on the use of these beneficial microbes that act on gut microflora in animal farming was undertaken and compared with the use of probiotics for food. Beneficial microbes added to feed are classified at a regulatory level as zootechnical additives, in the category of gut flora stabilizers for healthy animals and are regulated up to strain level in Europe. Intended effects are improvement of performance characteristics, which are strain dependent and growth enhancement is not a prerequisite. In fact, increase of body weight is not commonly reported and its frequency is around 25% of the published data examined here. However, when a Body Weight Gain (BWG) was found in the literature, it was generally moderate (lower than or close to 10%) and this over a reduced period of their short industrial life. When it was higher than 10%, it could be explained as an indirect consequence of the alleviation of the weight losses linked to stressful intensive rearing conditions or health deficiency. However, regulations on feed do not consider the health effects because animals are supposed to be healthy, so there is no requirement for reporting healthy effects in the standard European dossier. The regulations governing the addition of beneficial microorganisms to food are less stringent than for feed and no dossier is required if a species has a Qualified Presumption of Safety status. The microbial strain marketed is not submitted to any regulation and its properties (including BWG) do not need to be studied. Only claims for functional or healthy properties are regulated and again growth effect is not included. However, recent studies on probiotic effects showed that BWG could also be observed in humans, or not, according to species and strains. Determining the significance of farm animal results for extrapolation to humans, especially regarding body weight improvement, was not easy because they do not use the same microbial strains nor always the same species. Furthermore, the framework for the management of microbials added to feed or to food differ, especially with regard to goal, timescale and lifestyle. So no one can exclude the possibility that beneficial microorganisms having probiotic effects may have long-term effects in humans that cannot be seen to date in animals, where short-term use is the rule. A possible link to obesity cannot be excluded in relation to timescale, species and strain specificity. To conclude, beneficial microorganisms added in feed are key factors stringently regulated for short-term improvement of zootechnical performances in animals and their use does not entirely parallel that of human probiotics. So extrapolation of farm animal results to humans is biased and not sufficient to be conclusive regarding the existence or not of a link between probiotics and obesity. From a toxicological and nutritional point of view and considering recent findings on a link between antibiotic use in early life and excessive risk of becoming overweight, one suggestion is to study the at-risk population in Europe, pregnant women and their babies before and after birth and during early childhood, in an epidemiological long-term cohort survey., (© 2013 The Authors Clinical Microbiology and Infection © 2013 European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases.)

Toll like receptors (TLRs) are transmembrane glycoproteins that recognize conserved microbial molecules. Engagement of TLRs activates innate and adaptive immunity. TLR-mediated activation of immune cells results in upregulation of cytokines, chemokines and costimulatory molecules. These early innate responses control pathogen spread and initiates adaptive immune responses. Synthetic CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN), agonists for TLR9, had shown great promise as immunotherapeutic agents and vaccine adjuvants in laboratory animal models of infectious disease, allergy and cancer. However, it has become apparent that CpG ODN are less potent immune activators in domestic animals and humans. The disparity in immune responses between rodents and mammals has been mainly attributed to differences in cellular expression of TLR9 in the various species. In this article, our current understanding of the immune mechanisms, as well as the potential applications of CpG ODN will be reviewed, with particular emphasis on domestic animals., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Spontaneous mycobacteriosis is rare in rabbits and rodents with the exception of the pygmy rabbit, and there are only a handful of reported cases involving other rodents. Mycobacterium avium complex was the most commonly identified organism in reports of spontaneous mycobacteriosis involving rabbits and rodents. The resistance of rabbits and rodents to mycobacterial disease has been useful in understanding the disease in humans and other animals. Preventing or controlling Mycobacterium sp transmission from wildlife to domestic animals will require collaboration between agriculture, wildlife, environmental, and political entities. Understanding the ecology and epidemiology of mycobacteria is needed for better worldwide management of tuberculosis.

Background: The results of recent studies suggest that factors in rural environments may protect against the development of allergic diseases, but the underlying mechanisms are not well understood. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of allergic diseases, to establish if this prevalence is influenced by migration from rural to urban areas and to identify environmental risk factors associated with these diseases., Methods: A cross-sectional study of children aged 9-12 years from a rural village, a rural town and an urban city in Korea was conducted. Demographic and disease-related information was obtained via a detailed questionnaire, and skin prick tests were performed., Results: There were significant differences in lifestyle and environmental factors between children from the rural village, the rural town and the urban children. The prevalence of allergic diseases and atopy was higher in urban children. A lower prevalence of allergic diseases and atopy was associated with farming parents, contact with farm animals during pregnancy, owning pets or a stable, breast-feeding and having older siblings. A comparison of rural village and rural town children revealed no evidence of an association of allergic diseases and atopy with farming parents, contact with farm animals during pregnancy or owning a stable. On the other hand, having older siblings and antibiotic use during infancy were significantly associated with allergic diseases and atopy in these children., Conclusions: Protective factors associated with a farming environment and/or rural lifestyle may influence the prevalence of allergic diseases and atopy in Korean children., (Copyright © 2012 S. Karger AG, Basel.)

The current study aimed to evaluate the influence of domestication process on the stress response and subsequent immune modulation in Eurasian perch juveniles (Perca fluviatilis) submitted to chronic confinement. Briefly, F1 and F4 generations were confined into small-size tanks and sampled 7 and 55 days after stocking. Cortisol and glucose levels as well as lysozyme activity and immunoglobulin level were evaluated in the serum. Spleen Somatic Index and spleen ROS production were also measured. A proteomic analysis was performed on serum sampled on day 7. Finally, both generations were genetically characterized using a microsatellite approach. Globally, results revealed that chronic confinement did not elicit a typical stress response but resulted in a prolonged immune stimulation. Proteomic results suggested that domestication process influenced the immune status of perch submitted to chronic confinement as the F1 confined fish displayed lower abundance of C3 complement component, transferrin and Apolipoprotein E. Microsatellite data showed a strong genetic drift as well as reduced genetic diversity, allelic number and heterozygosity along with domestication process. The present work is the first to report that fish under domestication can develop an immune response, assessed by a combined approach, following recurrent challenges imposed by captive environment despite a reduced genetic variation., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Exposure to farming environments has been shown to protect substantially against asthma and atopic disease across Europe and in other parts of the world. The GABRIEL Advanced Surveys (GABRIELA) were conducted to determine factors in farming environments which are fundamental to protecting against asthma and atopic disease. The GABRIEL Advanced Surveys have a multi-phase stratified design. In a first-screening phase, a comprehensive population-based survey was conducted to assess the prevalence of exposure to farming environments and of asthma and atopic diseases (n = 103,219). The second phase was designed to ascertain detailed exposure to farming environments and to collect biomaterial and environmental samples in a stratified random sample of phase 1 participants (n = 15,255). A third phase was carried out in a further stratified sample only in Bavaria, southern Germany, aiming at in-depth respiratory disease and exposure assessment including extensive environmental sampling (n = 895). Participation rates in phase 1 were around 60% but only about half of the participating study population consented to further study modules in phase 2. We found that consenting behaviour was related to familial allergies, high parental education, wheeze, doctor diagnosed asthma and rhinoconjunctivitis, and to a lesser extent to exposure to farming environments. The association of exposure to farm environments with asthma or rhinoconjunctivitis was not biased by participation or consenting behaviour. The GABRIEL Advanced Surveys are one of the largest studies to shed light on the protective 'farm effect' on asthma and atopic disease. Bias with regard to the main study question was able to be ruled out by representativeness and high participation rates in phases 2 and 3. The GABRIEL Advanced Surveys have created extensive collections of questionnaire data, biomaterial and environmental samples promising new insights into this area of research., (© 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.)

Background: Cross-sectional studies have shown an association between the farming environment and a decreased risk of atopic sensitization, mainly related to contact with farm animals in the childhood., Objective: Investigate the association of a farming environment, especially farm animal contact, during infancy, with atopic sensitization and allergic diseases at the age of 31., Methods: In a prospective birth cohort study, 5509 subjects born in northern Finland in 1966 were followed up at the age of 31. Prenatal exposure to the farming environment was documented before or at birth. At age 31, information on health status and childhood exposure to pets was collected by a questionnaire and skin prick tests were performed., Results: Being born to a family having farm animals decreased the risk of atopic sensitization [odds ratio (OR) 0.67; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.56-0.80], atopic eczema ever (OR 0.77; 95% CI 0.66-0.91), doctor-diagnosed asthma ever (OR 0.74; 95% CI 0.55-1.00), allergic rhinitis at age 31 (OR 0.87; 95% CI 0.73-1.03) and allergic conjunctivitis (OR 0.86; 95% CI 0.72-1.02) at age 31. There was a suggestion that the reduced risk of allergic sensitization was particularly evident among the subjects whose mothers worked with farm animals during pregnancy, and that the reduced risk of the above diseases by farm animal exposure was largely explained by the reduced risk of atopy. Having cats and dogs in childhood revealed similar associations as farm animals with atopic sensitization., Conclusion and Clinical Relevance: Contact with farm animals in early childhood reduces the risk of atopic sensitization, doctor-diagnosed asthma and allergic diseases at age 31., (© 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.)

Background: Prior research about whether keeping a dog or cat at home causes allergies to that pet has been limited to outcomes in early childhood., Objective: Evaluate the association between lifetime dog and cat exposure and allergic sensitization to the specific animal at 18 years of age., Methods: Participants enrolled in the Detroit Childhood Allergy Study birth cohort during 1987-1989 were contacted at the age 18 years. Sensitization to dog or cat was defined as animal-specific IgE ≥ 0.35 kU/L. Annual interview data from childhood and follow-up interviews at age 18 years were used to determine lifetime indoor dog and cat exposure (indoor was defined when the animal spent >50% of their time inside the house). Exposure was considered in various ways: first year, age groups and cumulative lifetime. Analyses were conducted separately for dogs and cats., Results: Among males, those with an indoor dog during the first year of life had half the risk [relative risk (RR)=0.50, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.27, 0.92] of being sensitized to dogs at age 18 compared with those who did not have an indoor dog in the first year. This was also true for males and females born via c-section (RR=0.33, 95% CI 0.07, 0.97). Overall, teens with an indoor cat in the first year of life had a decreased risk (RR=0.52, 95% CI 0.31, 0.90) of being sensitized to cats. Neither cumulative exposure nor exposure at any other particular age was associated with either outcome., Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: The first year of life is the critical period during childhood when indoor exposure to dogs or cats influences sensitization to these animals., (© 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.)

Although domestic animals may not be permissive for Plasmodium, they could nevertheless play a role in the epidemiology of malaria by attracting Anopheles away from humans. To investigate interactions between domestic animals and mosquitoes, we assayed immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies directed against the salivary proteins of Anopheles gambiae in domestic animals living in Senegalese villages where malaria is endemic. By Western blotting, sera from bovines (n=6), ovines (n=36), and caprines (n=36) did not react with Anopheles whole saliva. In contrast, equine sera recognized proteins in both saliva and salivary gland extracts. Two of the major immunogens (32 and 72 kDa) were also reactive in extracts from other major mosquito genera (Aedes and Culex), but reactions toAnopheles-specific antigens were detected in 12 of 17 horses. These data suggest that horses strongly react to Anopheles bites, and further experiments on horses are warranted to investigate the impact of this domestic animal species on the transmission of human malaria.

Abnormalities of peripheral tolerance are thought to contribute to the pathogenesis of a number of inflammatory, autoimmune and neoplastic diseases of both humans and animals. Furthermore, the induction of allograft tolerance is the 'holy grail' of clinical transplantation. Of the various mechanisms underlying peripheral tolerance, regulatory T cells (Tregs) have risen to particular prominence. Various Treg subsets have been characterised, including naturally occurring cells that develop along a regulatory lineage in the thymus and induced cells that arise in the periphery from conventional T cell precursors. The transcription factor Forkhead box (Foxp3) serves a crucial role in stabilising the Treg transcriptome and is a faithful marker of peripheral Tregs in the mouse, though its expression is somewhat more promiscuous in man. Regulatory T cells display a wide spectrum of suppressive and cytotoxic mechanisms and may convert to specific T helper cell subsets in response to appropriate inflammatory cues. Although knowledge of Tregs in domestic animal species is still in its infancy, a growing body of literature is accumulating in the dog, cat, pig, cow, sheep and horse. We highlight our own and other studies of Tregs in the dog, an important veterinary species and a model for a number of human diseases. The ethos of 'One Health, One Medicine' is anticipated to accelerate efforts to close the knowledge gap between domestic animal and mainstream species in this field. We predict that the prodigious pace of research into Tregs will continue unabated for years to come, fuelled by the exciting therapeutic potential of these cells., (Copyright © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Purpose of Review: Indoor pollutants and allergens cause asthma symptoms and exacerbations and influence the risk of developing asthma. We review recent studies regarding the effects of the indoor environment on childhood asthma., Recent Findings: Exposure to some indoor allergens and second hand smoke are causally related to the development of asthma in children. Many recent studies have demonstrated an association between exposure to indoor pollutants and allergens and airways inflammation, asthma symptoms, and increased healthcare utilization among individuals with established asthma. Genetic polymorphisms conferring susceptibility to some indoor exposures have also been identified, and recent findings support the notion that environmental exposures may influence gene expression through epigenetic modification. Recent studies also support the efficacy of multifaceted environmental interventions in childhood asthma., Summary: Studies have provided significant evidence of the association between many indoor pollutants and allergens and asthma morbidity, and have also demonstrated the efficacy of multifaceted indoor environmental interventions in childhood asthma. There is also a growing body of evidence suggesting that some indoor pollutants and allergens may increase the risk of developing asthma. Future studies should examine mechanisms whereby environmental exposures may influence asthma pathogenesis and expand the current knowledge of susceptibility factors for indoor exposures.

Objective: To examine risk factors for eczema at age 4 years., Study Design: Beginning at 1 year of age, infants of atopic parents (n = 636) had annual clinical evaluations and skin prick tests (SPTs) to 15 aeroallergens and milk and egg. Parents completed validated surveys on eczema and environmental exposures. House dust samples were evaluated for allergens and endotoxin. Eczema was defined as a parental report of scratching, and redness, "raised bumps," or dry skin/scaling for 6 of the last 12 months., Results: At age 4 years, a total of 90 children (14%) had eczema. Not having a dog before 1 year of age and being dog SPT+ at 1, 2, or 3 years of age conferred a 4-fold higher risk for eczema at age 4 years (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 3.9 [1.6-9.2]; P = .002). Among dog owners, however, dog SPT+ was not associated with significantly increased risk (aOR 1.3 [0.3-6.8]; P = .8). Among children with cats before 1 year of age, cat SPT+ conferred significantly increased risk for eczema (aOR = 13.3 [3.1-57.9]; P < .001). Among non-cat owners, cat SPT+ was not associated with increased risk (aOR = 1.1 [0.5-2.7]; P = .8)., Conclusion: Dog ownership significantly reduced the risk for eczema at age 4 years among dog-sensitized children, cat ownership combined with cat sensitization significantly increased the risk., (Copyright © 2011 Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Modern adjuvants should induce strong and balanced immune responses, and it is often desirable to induce specific types of immunity. As an example, efficient Th1-immunity-inducing adjuvants are highly in demand. Such adjuvants promote good cell-mediated immunity against subunit vaccines that have low immunogenicity themselves. The development of such adjuvants may take advantage of the increased knowledge of the molecular mechanisms and factors controlling these responses. However, knowledge of such molecular details of immune mechanisms is relatively scarce for species other than humans and laboratory rodents, and in addition, there are special considerations pertaining to the use of adjuvants in veterinary animals, such as production and companion animals. With a focus on veterinary animals, this review highlights a number of approaches being pursued, including cytokines, CpG oligonucleotides, microparticles and liposomes.

The second part of our study deals with a comparative evaluation and discussion of the immunohistochemical results that were obtained. The cryoscanning electron microscopy (cryoSEM) observations confirmed a monolayer colonization of the esophageal surface with bacteria and fungi (yeasts); the latter in particular was prominent in the ruminant species studied. We demonstrated the existence of several innate immune parameters, including pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs), such as Toll-like receptor 2, which was primarily expressed in the stratum basale; however, the presence β-glucan receptors remained inconclusive. Furthermore, the group of cationic antimicrobial peptides (CAPs) was shown, comprising β-defensins 2 and 3 and cathelicidin. The less keratinized esophageal epithelium of the carnivorous cat was protected by high amounts of CAPs; whereas the more strongly keratinized epithelium of the herbivorous and omnivorous species with its characteristic layer structure exhibited clearly weaker reactions. Moreover, lysozyme could distinctly be demonstrated in the cells of the esophageal epithelium. It can be concluded that a first line of defence mechanisms of the innate immune system contributes to maintaining a microbial homeostasis on the surface of the esophageal epithelium of domesticated mammals. The results are discussed in comparison to findings from studies on the human esophagus., (Copyright © 2009 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Since first being described in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, the knowledge regarding Toll-like receptors (TLRs) has transformed our understanding of immunology. TLRs are a family of conserved pattern recognition receptors (PRR) that recognise specific microbial-associated molecular patterns and allow the cell to distinguish between self and non-self materials. The very property of the TLRs, to link innate and adaptive immunity, offers a novel opportunity to develop vaccines that engage TLR signalling. The presence of TLR ligands as adjuvants in conjunction with a vaccine is shown to increase the efficacy and response to the immunisation with a particular antigen. Here, we focus on the findings pertaining to TLR ligands as adjuvants and discuss the importance of these studies in the development of an optimal vaccine in farm and companion animals.

Toll-like receptors are pattern recognition receptors with which hosts recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMP). This recognition process is translated rapidly into a meaningful defense reaction. This form of innate host defense is preserved in the animal kingdom: invertebrates heavily depend on it; higher vertebrates also have an adaptive immune system. Both adaptive and innate immune systems are intertwined in that the former also depends on an intact innate recognition and response system. Members of the TLR system cover recognition of parasitic, bacterial or viral germs. Due to the constraints imposed by the necessity to recognize PAMP and to interact with downstream signaling molecules, the TLR system is relatively conserved in evolution. Nevertheless, subtle species differences have been reported for several mammalian TLR members. Examples of this will be given. In all mammalian species investigated, part of the coding sequence is available for the most important TLR members, thus allowing study of expression of these TLR members in various tissues by reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction in its classical (RT-PCR) and quantitative real time RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) form. In some species, the whole coding sequences of the most important or even all TLR members are known. This allows construction of cDNA and transfection of common host cells, thus permitting functional studies. Extensive investigations were devoted to the study of non-synonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms. In a few cases, expression of a given amino acid in the extracellular (ligand-binding) portion of TLR members could be associated with infectious diseases. This will be discussed below.

Background: Cross-sectional studies have suggested that prenatal farm exposures might protect against allergic disease and increase the expression of receptors of the innate immune system. However, epidemiologic evidence supporting the association with atopic dermatitis remains inconsistent., Objective: To study the association between prenatal farm-related exposures and atopic dermatitis in a prospective study. We further analyzed the association between the expression of innate immune genes at birth and atopic dermatitis., Methods: A total of 1063 children who participated in a birth cohort study, Protection against Allergy-Study in Rural Environments, were included in this study. Doctor diagnosis of atopic dermatitis was reported by the parents from 1 to 2 years of age by questionnaire. Gene expression of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and CD14 was assessed in cord blood leukocytes by quantitative PCR., Results: Maternal contact with farm animals and cats during pregnancy had a significantly protective effect on atopic dermatitis in the first 2 years of life. The risk of atopic dermatitis was reduced by more than half among children with mothers having contact with 3 or more farm animal species during pregnancy compared with children with mothers without contact (adjusted odds ratio, 0.43; 95% CI, 0.19-0.97). Elevated expression of TLR5 and TLR9 in cord blood was associated with decreased doctor diagnosis of atopic dermatitis. A significant interaction between polymorphism in TLR2 and prenatal cat exposure was observed in atopic dermatitis., Conclusion: Maternal contact with farm animals and cats during pregnancy has a protective effect on the development of atopic dermatitis in early life, which is associated with a lower expression of innate immune receptors at birth., (Copyright © 2010 American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. Published by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved.)