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When volcanic eruptions involve interaction with external water (hydrovolcanism), the result is an ash-rich and energetic volcanic plume, as illustrated dramatically by the January 2022 Tonga eruption. The origin of the high explosive energy of these events remains an important question. We investigate this question by studying Prince Rupert’s Drops (PRDs)—tadpole-shaped glass beads formed by dripping molten glass into water—which have long fascinated materials scientists because the great strength of the head contrasts with the explosivity of the metastable interior when the tail is broken. We show that the fragment size distribution (FSD) produced by explosive fragmentation changes systematically with PRD fragmentation in air, water, and syrup. Most FSDs are fractal over much of the size range, scaling that can be explained by the repeated fracture bifurcation observed in three-dimensional images from microcomputed tomography. The shapes of constituent fragments are determined by their position within the original PRD, with platey fragments formed from the outer (compressive) shell and blocky fragments formed by fractures perpendicular to interior voids. When molten drops fail to form PRDs, the glass disintegrates by quench granulation, a process that produces fractal FSDs but with a larger median size than explosively generated fragments. Critically, adding bubbles to the molten glass prevents PRD formation and promotes quench granulation, suggesting that granulation is modulated by heterogeneous stress fields formed around the bubbles during sudden cooling and contraction. Together, these observations provide insight into glass fragmentation and potentially, processes operating during hydrovolcanism.

The breaking apart of magma into fragments is intimately related to the eruptive style and thus the nature and footprint of volcanic hazards. The size and shape distributions of the fragments, in turn, affect the efficiency of heat transfer within pyroclastic plumes and currents and the settling velocity, and so the residence time, of particles in the atmosphere. Fundamental work relating the glass transition to the fragmentation of magmas remains at the heart of conceptual and numerical models of volcanic eruptions. Current fragmentation criteria, however, do not predict the sizes and shapes of the resulting fragments, or fully account for the multiphase nature of magmas or ways in which magma can break in a fluidal manner or by thermal stress. The pulsatory, non-steady state nature of some eruptions, and related interactions with these fragmentation criteria, also requires further investigation. Here, we briefly review some recent advances in the field of magma fragmentation and provide a perspective on how integrated field, experimental and numerical modelling studies can address key outstanding challenges.

Many volcanoes around the world are persistently active with continuous degassing for years or even centuries, sometimes exceeding historic records. Such long-term stability contrasts with short-term instability, reflected in eruptive episodes that punctuate passive degassing. These two aspects of persistent activity, long-term stability as opposed to short-term instability, are often conceptualized through two distinct model frameworks: Exchange-flow in volcanic conduits is commonly invoked to explain the long-term thermal balance and sustained passive degassing, while the ascent of large gas slugs is called upon to understand explosive eruptions. While typically considered separately, we propose here that both flow processes could occur jointly in the conduits of persistently active volcanoes and in transient connections between subvolcanic melt lenses. To understand the dynamic interplay between exchange flow and slug ascent, we link analogue laboratory experiments with direct numerical simulations. We find that the two flows superimpose without creating major disruptions when only considering the ascent of a single gas slug. However, the sequential ascent of multiple gas slugs is disruptive to the ambient exchange flow, because it may entail continual buildup of buoyant magma at depth. While our study focuses on the laboratory scale, we propose that the dependence of exchange-flow stability on sequential slug ascent is relevant for understanding why explosive sequences are sometimes followed by effusive eruptions. Taken together, our work suggests that integrating exchange flow and slug ascent could provide a more complete understanding of persistently active volcanoes than either model framework offers in isolation.

At the global scale, large tectonic earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are believed to be random and independent events. Here, we compare global time-series of large earthquakes (Mw ≥ 7) and explosive volcanic eruptions (VEI ≥ 2) spanning 1960–2019. Both time-series exhibit decadal timescale trends, over which annual earthquake and eruption rates vary by a factor of ≈2. Moreover, global seismic moment release is positively correlated with global eruption rate, with Monte Carlo permutation tests showing that this correlation is significant with a P-value of 1000 km) by earthquake-induced dynamic stress changes, modulation of global earthquake and eruption rates by variations in Earth's rotational velocity, or natural synchronization of events over repeating cycles, are therefore required to explain the correlation.

The structural form and elemental distribution of material originating from different Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant reactors (Units 1 and 3) is hereby examined to elucidate their contrasting release dynamics and the current in-reactor conditions to influence future decommissioning challenges. Complimentary computed X-ray absorption tomography and X-ray fluorescence data show that the two suites of Si-based material sourced from the different reactor Units have contrasting internal structure and compositional distribution. The known event and condition chronology correlate with the observed internal and external structures of the particulates examined, which suggest that Unit 1 ejecta material sustained a greater degree of melting than that likely derived from reactor Unit 3. In particular, we attribute the near-spherical shape of Unit 1 ejecta and their internal voids to there being sufficient time for surface tension to round these objects before the hot (and so relatively low viscosity) silicate melt cooled to form glass. In contrast, a more complex internal form associated with the sub-mm particulates invoked to originate from Unit 3 suggest a lower peak temperature, over a longer duration. Using volcanic analogues, we consider the structural form of this material and how it relates to its environmental particulate stability and the bulk removal of residual materials from the damaged reactors. We conclude that the brittle and angular Unit 3 particulate are more susceptible to further fragmentation and particulate generation hazard than the round, higher-strength, more homogenous Unit 1 material.

Heating of water under hot pyroclastic flow deposits can drive hydroeruptions, forming craters and aprons of secondary deposits. According to the established conceptual model, steam pressure builds until failure of the pyroclastic overburden and a relatively low permeability (fine-grained) cap promotes secondary explosions. We explore a complementary model where the stress from drag related to gas flow up through the particle interstices is comparable in magnitude to the static pressure difference between the base and the top of the pyroclastic flow deposit. The drag force supports (part of) the weight of the particles and so reduces inter-particle friction; in a mono-sized bed this friction is effectively eliminated at the ‘minimum fluidisation velocity’, which depends on the size and density of the particles. Through analogue experiments we show that violent outbursts can be generated when there are vertical variations in the minimum fluidisation velocities of granular materials. We ran experiments with layers of particles with different sizes or size distributions (bi-modal with different proportions of fine and coarse particles) in a tank with a porous base that allowed a distributed upward airflow through them. A finer-grained layer capping a coarser layer does not generate jets of particles or craters; rather, increased gas flux leads to fluidisation of first the fine and then the coarse (lower) layer. However, when the upper layer is coarser, the bed domes upward as a gas pocket grows within the finer layer for some combinations of layer thicknesses and grain sizes. When the gas pocket penetrates the top of the bed, it forms a crater and erupts particles. The gas velocity when doming initiates is greater than that calculated for the weight of the top layer to be balanced by drag and the pressure difference across that layer. This discrepancy is explained by the layers having a strength (from inter-particle friction), which is consistent with the observed dependence of the initiation velocity on the absolute thickness of the layer. Using data from Mt St Helens 1980 deposits, we show that the drag-related trigger observed in the laboratory is a feasible mechanism for secondary hydroeruptions through pyroclastic flow deposits.

Physical interactions between bubbles and crystals affect gas migration and may play a major role in eruption dynamics of crystal-rich magmas. Strombolian eruptions represent an end member for bubble-crystal interactions, in which large bubbles (significantly larger than the crystal size) rise through a crystal-rich near-surface magma. Indeed, volcanoes that produce Strombolian eruptions often generate ejecta with > 30 vol% (often > 45 vol%) average crystallinity. At Stromboli Volcano, Italy, average crystallinity can reach 55 vol%, which is approaching the eruptibility limit for magmas. At such high crystallinities the solids interact mechanically with each other and with bubbles. This complex rheology complicates the two-phase (liquid-gas) slug flow model often applied to Strombolian eruptions. To examine the effect of crystals on bubble rise, we performed analogue experiments in which large bubbles rise in a vertical tube filled with silicone oil and polypropylene particles. The particles have a slightly lower density than the oil, and therefore form a layer of oil + particles at the upper surface. We varied surface pressure, particle volume fraction, length of the particle-bearing cap, and bubble size to examine the ways in which these parameters influence Strombolian-type eruptions. We show that in experiments, suspended solids begin to affect bubble rise dynamics at particle volume fractions as low as 30 vol% (or, when divided by the random close packing value, a normalized particle fraction φ = 0.64 ). Bubbles in experiments with higher particle contents deform as they rise and burst through a small aperture, generating surface fountains that begin abruptly and decay slowly, and longer-lasting acoustic signals of lower amplitude than in particle-poor experiments. Particle fractions > 38 vol% ( φ > 0.80 ) generated strong deformations on fast-expanding bubbles that applied a high stress on the cap, but they trapped bubbles that were less overpressured. Qualitatively, the gas release behavior observed in particle-rich experiments is consistent with observations of Strombolian eruptions. Moreover, we estimate that the observed crystallinity of pyroclasts at Stromboli volcano represents φ > 0.8 . From this we suggest a “weak plug” model for Strombolian eruptions that evolves towards a low-viscosity equivalent of Vulcanian-style plug failure with a more crystalline, stronger, and less permeable plug. Importantly, this model allows the rise of several bubbles in the conduit at the same time and suggests that longer-lasting, more pulsatory and complex eruptions may reveal an increase in near-surface crystallinity, shedding some light on changing conduit conditions that could help determine the different gas rise regimes involved in passive degassing, puffing, and different expressions of Strombolian explosions.

Volcanic ash is dispersed in the atmosphere according to meteorology and particle properties, including size and shape. However, the multiple definitions of size and shape for non‐spherical particles affect our ability to use physical particle properties to understand tephra transport. Moreover, although particles

Estimating the area of tephra fallout and volume of large magnitude eruptions is fundamental to interpretations of the hazards posed by eruptions of this scale. This study uses the tephra from the caldera forming eruption of Mount Mazama (Crater Lake, OR, USA) to demonstrate the challenges faced when working with large prehistoric tephra deposits and outlines the methodologies required to determine eruption volume and magnitude. We combine > 250 Mazama tephra occurrences, reported by a range of disciplines (including archaeology, paleoclimatology and volcanology), with new field studies to better understand the extent of the distal tephra. We find that the Mazama tephra has been remobilised to varying degrees over the past 7000 years, so each tephra locality was appraised for the likelihood that it records primary tephra fallout. We designated 45 of the distal (> 100 km from source) tephra sites as suitable for use in the production of isopachs using a spline fitting method. The new distal isopachs were then integrated with proximal fallout data and estimates of the ignimbrite volume from previous studies to revise the estimated bulk erupted volume from the climactic Mazama eruption to ~ 176 km3 (~ 61 km3 dense-rock equivalent; DRE). This study demonstrates the importance of collating tephra localities from a range of disciplines and that even remobilised deposits provide valuable information about the extent of the deposit. Interpreting remobilised deposits can provide insight into post-eruptive processes that could potentially pose secondary hazards following large magnitude eruptions. We also show that in some circumstances, remobilised deposits preserve important physical properties such as grain size.

Tephra layers in lake sediment cores are regularly used for tephrostratigraphy as isochronous features for dating and recording eruption frequencies. However, their value for determining volcanic eruption size and style may be complicated by processes occurring in the lake that modify the thickness and grain size distributions of the deposit. To assess the reliability of data from lake cores, we compare tephra deposited on land during the 2015 eruption of Calbuco volcano in Chile to records in sediment cores from three lakes of different sizes that are known to have received primary fall deposits. In general, the thickness and granulometry of the deposit in lake cores and nearby terrestrial sections are very similar. As anticipated, however, cores sampled close to (here, within 300 m of) fluvial inflows were affected by sediment deposition from the lake’s catchment; they differed from primary deposits not only in their greater thickness and organic content but also in poor sorting and lack of grading. Cores 850 m away from the inlet were not affected. We consider our results in the context of the particle settling regime as well as each lake’s location, bathymetry and catchment area. We find that the particle settling regime is important in more distal settings where the ash particles are small and particle settling occurs in density plumes rather than as individual particles. We conclude that lake cores can be useful for physical volcanology providing consideration is given to eruption parameters such as particle size and mass flux, as well as lake features such as bathymetry and catchment area.

Publisher's version (útgefin grein), It is well established that rootless cones and associated deposits are the result of explosive interactions between lava flows and environmental water, but there is substantial uncertainty about the dynamics of rootless eruptions, particularly the relative importance of lava supply, water availability and the conditions under which they meet. Here we present a case study of the Younger Laxá Lava in NE Iceland, and the >6500 rootless cones that it created. Critically, this long (63 km) lava flow interacted with water along its length, from flow through/around a large lake (Mývatn), down a narrow river gorge (Laxárdalur) and across a broad glacial valley with wetlands and rivers (Aðaldalur). Using high-resolution digital terrain models and aerial photographs, we map the flow surface morphology, and classify, measure and analyse the rootless cone type, size and spatial distribution in the context of both lava and water availability. We find that rootless cone size is controlled by the combined availability of lava and water: large rootless cones require sustained, high volumes of lava (related to proximity to vent) and water (e.g., Lake Mývatn), whereas limited supplies of lava (with distance from the vent and from the centre of the flow) and water (particularly in dammed river valleys) build smaller cones. Where we infer that where water was distributed in sediment, the lava–water interaction style changed to low-energy and distributed bubble bursts that created >3000 hornitos in the lower reaches of Aðaldalur. The distribution of rootless cones around Mývatn also defines the pre-eruption extent of the lake and suggests substantial lake level changes during the course of the eruption. By looking at the variation in rootless cone type and size in the context of the parent lava flow and the local environment, we explain how the availability of water and local mass flow rate of lava affect the dynamics of rootless eruptions., This work was supported by the Natural Environmental Research Council [grant no: NE/L002434/1], and on AXA Research Fund and Wolfson Merit Award to KVC. DTMs provided by the Polar Geospatial Center under NSF OPP awards 1043681, 1559691 and 1542736.

Crystal-rich intermediate magmas are subjected to both primary and secondary fragmentation processes, each of which may produce texturally distinct tephra. Of particular interest for volcanic hazards is the extent to which each process contributes ash to volcanic plumes. One way to address this question is by fragmenting pyroclasts under controlled conditions. We fragmented pumice samples from Soufriere Hills Volcano (SHV), Montserrat, by three methods: rapid decompression in a shock tube-like apparatus, impact by a falling piston, and milling in a ball mill. Grain size distributions of the products reveal that all three mechanisms produce fractal breakage patterns, and that the fractal dimension increases from a minimum of ~ 2.1 for decompression fragmentation (primary fragmentation) to a maximum of ~ 2.7 by repeated impact (secondary fragmentation). To assess the details of the fragmentation process, we quantified the shape, texture and components of constituent ash particles. Ash shape analysis shows that the axial ratio increases during milling and that particle convexity increases with repeated impacts. We also quantify the extent to which the matrix is separated from the crystals, which shows that secondary processes efficiently remove adhering matrix from crystals, particularly during milling (abrasion). Furthermore, measurements of crystal size distributions before (using x-ray computed tomography) and after (by componentry of individual grain size classes) decompression-driven fragmentation show not only that crystals influence particular size fractions across the total grain size distribution, but also that free crystals are smaller in the fragmented material than in the original pumice clast. Taken together, our results confirm previous work showing both the control of initial texture on the primary fragmentation process and the contributions of secondary processes to ash formation. Critically, however, our extension of previous analyses to characterisation of shape, texture and componentry provides new analytical tools that can be used to assess contributions of secondary processes to ash deposits of uncertain or mixed origin. We illustrate this application with examples from SHV deposits.

International audience; The 18 May 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens started with a lateral blast that fed a pyroclastic surge, which then uplifted to form a co-blast plume. Thirty minutes later, Plinian activity started at the vent and fluctuated in intensity for ~9 h. The resulting fallout deposit, documented to > 600 km from vent, presents some striking features: (1) displacement of the overall deposit to the north of the vent, (2) a secondary thickness and mass maximum at ~300 km from vent, (3) a total grain size distribution dominated by fine ash (62 wt % of the deposit < 63 μm), and (4) individual grain size distributions that vary dramatically in the crosswind direction from strongly bimodal in the south to skewed unimodal in the north. Results from a new deconvolution of the individual grain size distributions show that they are a combination of a coarse subpopulation that decreases in size with distance from vent and a constant fine subpopulation with a mean of ∼15 μm. Relative proportions of each subpopulation vary asymmetrically in the crosswind directions, with the fine subpopulation preponderant toward the north and the coarse one dominating the south of the deposit, both reach their absolute maxima in mass on the deposit axis. Componentry analyses of selected samples show that blast-derived material is greatly enriched toward the north of the deposit. These results indicate that the co-blast plume dispersed fine-grained material over great distances and dominated the fine subpopulation. Comparison with reanalysis data of atmospheric wind fields and satellite images of the spreading ash cloud suggests contrasting ash transport and depositional processes for the (early) co-blast plume and the (later) vent-derived Plinian plumes. The co-blast plume is displaced to the north; it had a high overshoot height, and eastward dispersion via strong winds low in the stratosphere (~10-15 km). The Plinian plumes were lower and dispersed most of the material to the southeast as the direction of high-velocity winds shifted just before the late climactic Plinian eruptive phase. Fine ash (fine subpopulation) was deposited continuously throughout the deposit, with an increase of sedimentation rate ~300 km from the vent where there is a secondary maximum in the deposit mass and thickness. Fine ash probably settled by a combination of enhanced sedimentation mechanisms, including not only aggregation but also gravitational convective instabilities of cloud base, hydrometeor formation and destruction, and entrainment of small particles by larger ones. Finally, we show that half of the deposit (by mass) in the medial area was deposited by the co-blast plume, and that a significant proportion of the Mount St. Helens fallout deposit is nonjuvenile, which has implications for the magmatic budget of this eruption.

article i nfo Magmatic hydrothermal systems develop by the imposition of a magmatically derived heat flux upon a shallow groundwater system. As such their dynamics can be intermittently perturbed by changing conditions within the associated magmaticsystem. Understanding thenature of the coupling between the magmaticand groundwater systems is thus key to discriminating geophysical signals of magmatic unrest from purely hydrothermal ones. Using a series of numerical groundwater models run with TOUGH2, we simulate the coupled groundwater- magmatic system at Campi Flegrei caldera, with particular emphasis on the impact of permeability devel- oped within local fault systems and the dynamics of thesystem during magmatic unrest. Simulation results suggestthatfaultscanplayanimportantroleincontrollingthedynamicsofrechargeandheattransportwithinthe shallow hydrothermal reservoir. Results specifically highlight that contrasts in permeability between faults and surrounding rock impact local temperature gradients, with faults either acting as preferential routes for recharge or discharge of groundwater, depending on fault/caldera fill permeability contrast and the vertical extent of the fault.Simulationsofmagmaticunrestwithastep-wiseincreaseinbasalheat flux suggest that periodicgeophysical and chemical signals may stem from the interaction between the development of gas at depth and the recharge-discharge dynamics of the reservoir. These results highlight the potential for the dynamics of magmatic-hydrothermal systems to be significantly impacted by the presence and nature of local fault systems. Wheredynamicgroundwatersystemsare involved,itisthusimportanttounderstandtheimpactofsuchgeolog- ical elements when interpreting monitoring data such as ground deformation, seismicity and gas emissions. © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license

We present isothermal (885 °C) phase equilibrium experiments for a rhyodacite from Mount St. Helens (USA) at variable total pressure (25–457 MPa) and fluid composition (XH2Ofl = 0.6–1.0) under relatively oxidizing conditions (NNO to NNO + 3). Run products were characterized by SEM, electron microprobe, and SIMS. Experimental phase assemblages and phase chemistry are consistent with those of natural samples from Mount St. Helens from the last 4000 years. Our results emphasize the importance of pressure and melt H2O content in controlling phase proportions and compositions, showing how significant textural and compositional variability may be generated in the absence of mixing, cooling, or even decompression. Rather, variations in the bulk volatile content of magmas, and the potential for fluid migration relative to surrounding melts, mean that magmas may take varied trajectories through pressure–fluid composition space during storage, transport, and eruption. We introduce a novel method for projecting isothermal phase equilibria into CO2–H2O space (as conventionally done for melt inclusions) and use this projection to interpret petrological data from Mount St. Helens dacites. By fitting the experimental data as empirical functions of melt water content, we show how different scenarios of isothermal magma degassing (e.g., water-saturated ascent, vapor-buffered ascent, and vapor fluxing) can have quite different textural and chemical consequences. We explore how petrological data might be used to infer degassing paths of natural magmas and conclude that melt CO2 content is a much more useful parameter in this regard than melt H2O.

Experiments simulating magma decompression allow the textures of volcanic rocks to be calibrated against known eruptive conditions. Interpretation of natural samples may be complicated, however, by both the decompression path and the composition of exsolving volatiles, which affect the time evolution of crystal textures. Here we present the results of decompression experiments at elevated temperature and pressure designed to assess the effects of degassing path on crystallization of Mount St. Helens rhyodacite. Three families of experiments were employed to simulate varied PH2O-t trajectories: Single-step, 2O-saturated decompression (SSD); continuous, 2O-saturated decompression (CD); continuous, 2O-CO2-saturated decompression. Quantitative textural data (crystal abundance, number density, and size) are used to calculate plagioclase nucleation and growth rates and assess deviations from equilibrium in run products. These are the first experiments to quantify feldspar nucleation and growth rates during 2O-CO2-saturated decompression. We find that reducing the initial melt water content through addition of CO2 increases nucleation rates relative to the pure water case, an effect most pronounced at low dP/dt. Moreover, these early formed textural distinctions persist at the lowest pressures examined, suggesting that deep 2O-CO2 fluids could leave a lasting textural 'fingerprint' on erupted magmas. Crystals formed prior to decompression during the annealing process also modulate sample textures, and growth on pre-existing crystals contributes significantly to added crystallinity at a wide range of experimental conditions. The phase assemblage itself is a dynamic variable that can be used in conjunction with textural data to infer conditions of magma ascent and eruption. Finally, quantitative textural data from experimental samples are compared with those of natural pyroclasts erupted during the summer 1980 explosive-effusive transition at Mount St. Helens. This comparison supports a model of magma ejected from multiple storage regions present in the upper crust following the May 18 Plinian eruption, such that subsequent eruptions tapped magmas that experienced varied decompression and degassing histories.

Cerro Uturuncu is a long-dormant, compositionally monotonous, effusive dacitic volcano in the Altiplano–Puna Volcanic Complex (APVC) of SW Bolivia. The volcano recently gained attention following the discovery of an ∼70 km diameter Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) anomaly roughly centred on its edifice. Uturuncu dacites, erupted over the past ∼1 Myr, invariably have a phase assemblage of plagioclase–orthopyroxene–biotite–ilmenite–magnetite–apatite–zircon and rhyolite glass. To better constrain storage conditions of the dacite magmas and to help understand their relationship with the observed deformation, petrological experiments were performed in cold-seal hydrothermal vessels. Volatile-saturated (PH2O = PTOTAL and PH2O + PCO2 = PTOTAL) phase equilibria experiments were run between 50 and 250 MPa and 760 and 900°C at fO2 ∼ Ni–NiO. Two synthetic starting compositions were investigated based on a typical Uturuncu dacite whole-rock and its rhyolitic groundmass glass. Pre-eruptive magma storage conditions have been estimated by comparing results from the experiments with natural phase assemblages, modes, and mineral and glass compositions. H2O-saturated experiments constrain storage pressures to 100 ± 50 MPa, equivalent to 1·9–5·7 km below surface. In the dacite, natural phase assemblages are reproduced at 870°C, 100 MPa with both orthopyroxene and biotite stabilized concurrently. Natural glass chemistries are most closely replicated at 50 MPa at 870°C, reflecting the role of decompression crystallization prior to eruption. In H2O-saturated rhyolite experiments the natural phase assemblage is most closely replicated at 870°C, 50 MPa. Isothermal, mixed volatile dacite experiments at 870°C further constrain storage pressures to 110 ± 10 MPa. Assuming that there has been no dramatic change in the eruptive behaviour of Uturuncu in the last 270 kyr, pre-eruptive storage of dacite magmas at ∼100 MPa precludes their role in producing the large diameter deformation anomaly. If deformation is a result of magmatic intrusion, then intrusion of less evolved magmas into deeper, mid-crustal storage regions is a more probable explanation. Intrusion within the Altiplano–Puna Magma Body (APMB), the extent of which is roughly coincident with the APVC, is most likely. It is proposed that dacite magmas form from andesitic parents, via fractionation and/or assimilation, within the APMB. Dacites then rise buoyantly to shallow storage levels where they stall and crystallize prior to eruption. Microlites form during subsequent ascent from the storage region to the surface.

The persistent release of gas at basaltic volcanoes where there is a low magma eruption rate can be driven by an exchange flow of magma in the conduit, in which gas-rich magma ascends, degasses and crystallises and then sinks back down the conduit. The driving force of the flow is provided by the density difference between the buoyant bubble-rich magma at depth and the dense degassed crystallised magma at shallow levels. In this study we attempt to constrain the physical and chemical processes driving an exchange flow of magma at Stromboli, Aeolian Archipelago, Italy. The model uses a simple, cylindrical geometry. We define degassing and crystallisation paths of the ascending and descending magmas, constrained by gas flux and melt inclusion data given in the literature, to produce a three-phase model of ascending and descending magmas driving persistent gas fluxes. We calculate the viscosity of the three-phase magma using end-member rheological models for bubble and crystal suspensions. Combining our modelled magma properties with analogue exchange flow experiments we can relate the regime of magma flow driving persistent degassing to pressure. At pressures less than or similar to 90 MPa (less than or similar to 3 km) the viscosity ratio is less than or similar to 100 and the regime is predicted to be side by side flow with both ascending and descending magmas adjacent to a portion of the conduit wall. At pressures greater than or similar to 90 MPa (greater than or similar to 3 km) the viscosity ratio between the ascending and descending magma is greater than or similar to 100 and the flow is predicted to be core annular flow, with the ascending vesiculating magma in the inner core and the more crystalline degassed magma flowing down along the conduit wall. By analogy, we hypothesise that degassed magma would flow down along the walls in dike-like plumbing geometries that have been proposed for the deeper Strombolian system. Analogue experiments suggest that exchange flows do not overturn under conditions of maximum volume flux; we use an empirical relationship to characterise the volume flux of the exchange flow and show that the radius of a cylindrical conduit required to account for the observed persistent gas flux at Stromboli at 0.1 MPa is similar to 1 m. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

We present a simple tool to evaluate the dominant dynamical regime of a lava flow and to estimate the order of magnitude of the main rheological parameter (viscosity or yield strength) controlling the length of the lava flow with time. We consider three dynamical regimes: a Newtonian viscous regime, a yield strength-dominated regime and a crust-dominated regime. For each of these regimes, we present a scaling analysis to derive relationships between front position and time, emitted volume, slope, width of the flow and rheological properties. We apply the resulting equations to published data from eruptions of 10 lava flows with a range of compositions and conditions. Comparisons of the fits of the models to the data reveal that short-lived, high effusion rate eruptions are dominated by the internal viscosity of the lava, whereas low effusion rate or long-lived eruptions are dominated by the yield strength in the growing crust. Finally, blocky lavas with very high initial crystal contents are dominated by the internal yield strength. The evolution of some flows can be approximated with only two viscosity values: an early low lava viscosity stage and a later higher viscosity stage. The increase in viscosity is attributed to the initial disequilibrium conditions of the magma at the vent with further degassing and cooling triggering crystallisation of the lava flow. For yield strength-dominated flows yield strength is always within an order of magnitude of 105 Pa. This study provides a practical framework for predicting the evolution of the length of lava flows from estimates of the crystal content of the erupting lava and its effusion rate.