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In gas gun experiments, a graded density impactor (GDI) is used to achieve quasi-isentropic loading. However, inconsistency between the designed and experimental loading profiles, mainly caused by by-products during preparation, limits the application of GDI for a long time. In this work, a kind of W/Ti GDI with advantages of a wide density range of 4.5–19.3 g/cm3 and high structural designability was designed and synthesized. Each of mid-layers of the W/Ti GDI was composed of W and Ti without the formation of an intermetallic compound, and had good parallelism and flatness. This provides a prerequisite for good agreement between the designed and experimental loading profiles. Due to the high designability of the GDI, quasi-isentropic loading with different stress-paths was achieved by controlling the structure of the GDI. Then, independently controlling peak stress and strain rates of loading was successfully achieved by changing the flyer velocity and the type of the W/Ti GDI. The W/Ti GDI has enormous application potential in studying the dynamic response of materials under quasi-isentropic loading with stress and strain rate controlled. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quasi-isentropic loading and unloading, employing graded density impactors (GDIs) as flyers in gas gun-driven plate impact experiments, can provide novel and valuable insights into the equation of state and strength properties of the loaded material. However, the internal ballistic process may lead to spalling or debonding of the GDI due to the intricate interactions between stress waves and interfaces. In this study, the wave propagation in the GDI was analyzed using the multimaterial Lagrangian elastic-plastic model and elastic wave propagation theory. The impact of gradient direction, power-law constant p, and thickness of the first and last layers on the tensile stress was investigated. The outcomes reveal that the mechanism of generating tensile stress varies for two gradient directions. Moreover, adjusting the constant p and the layer thickness may decrease the maximum tensile stress by 74.1% (forward graded) and 95.8% (reverse graded), respectively. The outcomes of this research provide a theoretical and simulation basis for designing and fabricating GDIs to be utilized in quasi-isentropic experiments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The traditional Miura-ori was optimized to Miura-ori with platforms by geometric parameters. Two types of impactors were used to conduct low-velocity impact experiments at two specific sites. The damage morphology, response characteristics, and failure mechanism under various energy were systematically investigated. The results reveal that the impact resistance of the node is better than that of the base due to crushing absorbing energy. The impact resistance of the Miura-ori with platforms sandwich structures to the flat-ended impactor is better than that of the hemispherical impactor at the node. Still, the performance at the base is the opposite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractTheoretical analysis is utilized to model the low-velocity impact (LVI) on a Carbon-Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) sandwich plate with reentrant auxetic core. The Zig-Zag theory is employed to formulate the displacement field of the sandwich plate. The mechanical characteristics of the reentrant auxetic core unit cell are determined through the application of Gibson’s equations. The influences of the unit cell thickness, the unit cell angle, the number of layers of the unit cell along the plate thickness, the impactor radius, and the impactor initial velocity on the LVI study of CFRP sandwich plate with reentrant auxetic core are investigated in detail. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights This work aims to study the effects of bionic spiral stacking sequence, impact energy and impactor shape on the impact resistance of laminates. The finite element model is established based on the stress failure criterion, progressive damage evolution, and the triangle traction‐separation law. The reliability of the finite element model is validated through rigorous comparison with experimental data. The study investigates the influence of laminate layup sequence, impact energy, and impactor shape on the impact resistance of laminates. The results show that during low‐speed impacts, laminate damage is primarily characterized by fiber breakage, matrix cracking, and delamination. Matrix cracking and delamination become more pronounced as the impact energy increases. The design of linear spiral ply and power function spiral ply has a positive effect on the impact resistance of laminates. The impact resistance of laminates is sensitive to the sharpness of the impactor and the level of impact energy. Higher impact energy and sharper impactor shapes lead to increased energy absorption in the laminate, resulting in more pronounced damage failure. The impact resistance of bionic spiral composite laminates is studied. Three biologically inspired stacking sequences were designed. A numerical simulation method is proposed and verified. The low‐velocity impact characteristics of bionic laminates are revealed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ganymede has an ancient impact structure called a furrow system. The furrow system is the largest impact structure in the outer solar system, and the impact should have significantly affected Ganymede's early history; however, its effects are poorly understood. No attention has been given to the center of the furrow system coinciding with Ganymede's tidal axis, indicating that mass redistribution induced by the furrow-forming impact caused a reorientation (true polar wander) of Ganymede. We propose that the impact ejecta created a mass anomaly that reoriented the impact site toward the tidal axis. We found that an impactor with a radius of 150 km and an incidence angle between 60° and 90° most accurately reproduces the current location of the furrow system. We predict that future explorations would reveal remnant topographic profiles or gravity anomalies associated with the furrow-forming impact and reorientation. Additionally, various possible explanations for the reorientation of Ganymede, such as an impactor-origin mascon beneath the basin or a thickness variation in the lithosphere, should be studied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the industrial pecan shelling process, kernels are often damaged. To address this problem, a study is conducted to experimentally determine improved impactor geometries for end-to-end pecan cracking. Four impactors of varying internal angles (from 30° to 52.5°, in increments of 7.5°) are tested. After cracking, the pecans are passed through an image analysis software designed to detect and measure cracks in their shells. These measurements help classify each pecan into one of four categories: under crack, standard crack, ideal crack, or over crack. Cracked and ideally cracked pecans are preferred for their processability, so the impactor geometries are then evaluated based on their ability to maximize these crack types across the widest impact energy range. For the four impactors tested, the 30° impactor is found to more consistently produce preferred cracks in a larger energy range relative to the other impactors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Planetary defense scenarios require an assessment of the possible effects of an impact and of the efficacy of different mitigation options in order to provide decision makers with actionable information. Essential inputs to these assessments are the orbital parameters, the likelihood of impact, the possible locations of impact, and the physical properties of the potential impactor. There is a robust framework in place to determine the orbital parameters, the likelihood of impact, and the possible locations of impact (e.g. Milani et al. [1] , Sciarra et al. [2] , Losacco et al. [3]). While there is a robust suite of potential methods to determine properties of a potential impactor, most of these methods depend critically on the details of the objects observability (e.g. brightness, distance from Earth, ...). As a result, in practice it is rare that all the physical properties of interest are measurable. In order to fill this gap, we have developed a property inference network that can be used to generate a set of potential impactors whose properties in aggregate are consistent with the distributions from the available measurements, the distributions derived from population-wide statistics, and the combination of physical properties for each individual impactor is physically plausible. We will describe this Asteroid Property Inference Network (APIN), apply it to the PDC23 scenario, and demonstrate how even limited asteroid characterization can be leveraged to improve impact risk assessment. • We have developed a hybrid inference network to estimate asteroid physical parameters. • The inference network can leverage limited observational information about asteroids. • The use of the inference network in a planetary defense scenario is demonstrated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article concerns the modeling of the transverse impact of an impactor (test sample) on the surface of an infinite elastic layer. The Laplace transform with respect to time and the Hankel transform with respect to the radius for the axisymmetric case were applied. The propagation of elastic waves in the layer and local deformations in the contact zone are taken into account. Impact force, impact time and the coefficient of restitution were examined. The results are compared with the elastic half-space. The calculations carried out showed that for layer thicknesses of more than five impactor diameters, the layer can be considered as a half-space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An impact at Chicxulub, Mexico, occurred 66 million years ago, producing a global stratigraphic layer that marks the boundary between the Cretaceous and Paleogene eras. That layer contains elevated concentrations of platinum-group elements, including ruthenium. We measured ruthenium isotopes in samples taken from three Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary sites, five other impacts that occurred between 36 million to 470 million years ago, and ancient 3.5-billion- to 3.2-billion-year-old impact spherule layers. Our data indicate that the Chicxulub impactor was a carbonaceous-type asteroid, which had formed beyond the orbit of Jupiter. The five other impact structures have isotopic signatures that are more consistent with siliceous-type asteroids, which formed closer to the Sun. The ancient spherule layer samples are consistent with impacts of carbonaceous-type asteroids during Earth's final stages of accretion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We study the perturbed-from-synchronous librational state of a double asteroid, modeled by the Full Two Rigid Body Problem (F2RBP), with primary emphasis on deriving analytical formulas which describe the system's evolution after deflection by a kinetic impactor. To this end, both linear and nonlinear (canonical) theories are developed. We make the simplifying approximations (to be relaxed in a forthcoming paper) of planar binary orbit and axisymmetric shape of the primary body. To study the effect of a DART-like hit on the secondary body, the momentum transfer enhancement parameter β is introduced and retained as a symbolic variable throughout all formulas derived, either by linear or nonlinear theory. Our approach can be of use in the context of the analysis of the post-impact data from kinetic impactor missions, by providing a precise modeling of the impactor's effect on the seconadry's librational state as a function of β . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurately locating deposited particles on the impaction plate of an inertial impactor is crucial for mineralogical and geochemical analysis. Since traditional methods relying on filter analysis are costly and time-consuming, this study delves into the numerical examination of the impact of nozzle-converging length (NCL) on the collection efficiency and depositional arrangements of various fine aerosol particles. Three distinct nozzle-converging lengths (NCL = 3, 7, and 13 mm) were simulated and rigorously compared for their performance in particle collection within an eight-nozzle inertial impactor PM 2.5 . Comprehensive analysis reveals that varying NCL does not significantly impact the collection efficiency of any investigated particle, with variations within 12% across all sizes in this study. Moreover, while NCL adjustments influence the settling ratio of primary depositions, these effects remain under 35% for all different-sized and shaped particles studied in this article. Furthermore, after examining 120 cases and averaging the collection efficiency for particles of a constant aerodynamic diameter, our findings indicate that the efficiency variations across the three distinct geometries remain under 5%. Consequently, we conclude that the head design of this impactor is independent from NCL. Notably, shorter NCLs result in denser particle accumulation near the nozzle outlet on the impaction plate, with this effect more pronounced for coarser particles. In summary, this research provides valuable insights into the role of nozzle-converging length in aerosol particle collection efficiency and deposition patterns, offering crucial guidance for particle classification and sampling methodologies eliminating the need for filter analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research focuses on macrobendingbased fiber optic sensor technology for weight measurement. The sensor was constructed using fiber optic patch cable wrapped on a cylindrical rubber structure. This work analyzes the impact of the patch cable’s jacket application and the integration of a protective layer coated on the sensor. Moreover, the variations of deformer/impactor type, comprised double-flatshape (DFL), double-cylindrical protrusion-shape (DCP), double concave bowl-shaped (DCB), and a combination of a cylindrical-protrusion and a concave bowl-shape (CP-CB), were subsequently examined. The findings highlight the range of the optical loss that is attributed to weight measurement capacity. The investigation unveils the largest weight capacity demonstrated by the application of the DCB deformer type, i.e., reaching ~160.1 kg. The utilization of DCP, CP-CB, and DFL performed a weight capacity until ~41.3 kg, ~64.5 kg, and 121.2 kg, respectively. All deformer examination was employed on the sensor structure without the patchcable’s jacket and protective layer. The results can be used as a consideration in the construction of a macrobending-based fiber optic sensor for weight measurement, ensuring its adaptability and efficacy in real-world conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Near Earth asteroids with diameters less than 50 m possess distinct characteristics including a large population, a high likelihood of Earth impact, and limited warning time. While small asteroid impacts may not induce global disasters, they can still result in localized hazard. This study focuses on investigating the feasibility and strategies for disrupting small-sized asteroid structures through kinetic impact under short-term warning scenarios. Initially, a dataset comprising ten asteroids ranging from 20 m to 50 m in diameter is compiled by correcting their orbital parameters to simulate potential impacts on Earth. Subsequently, a space-based interception constellation is designed and deployed at the L3, L4, and L5 points of the Cislunar space. The study further examines the trajectory design methodology for achieving rapid interception of asteroids, enabling timely response within a warning period of 7 to 14 days. Additionally, the paper discusses the feasibility of impactors in disrupting asteroids through analytical models and Adaptive Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (ASPH) numerical simulation method. Lastly, the defense capability of the space-based interception constellation against Earth-impacting asteroids approaching from various directions is assessed. The simulations show that C and S-type asteroids below 40 m can be effectively fragmented using an impactor with an initial mass of 2 tons within the specified 7 to 14-day warning time. Furthermore, the deployment of impactors at L3, L4, and L5 allows for comprehensive coverage of asteroids approaching from diverse directions. • Design of interception constellation for small-size asteroid defense under short warning time. • Fragmentation efficiency analysis of small size asteroids via multiple criterions. • Defense capability of the interception constellation against asteroids approaching from various directions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The problem of normal impact of a rigid sphere on a Maxwell viscoelastic solid half-space is considered. The first-order asymptotic solution is constructed in the framework of Hunter's model of viscoelastic impact. In particular, simple analytical approximations have been derived for the maximum contact force and the time to achieve it. A linear regression method is suggested for evaluating the instantaneous elastic modulus and the mean relaxation time from a set of experimental data collected for different spherical impactors and impact velocities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the field of lightweight structures, foldcore sandwich structure is regarded as a promising replacement for conventional honeycomb sandwich structure. In this study, a new M-type glass fiber foldcore structure was fabricated by hot-pressing molding technology, and the effects of various factors on the low-velocity impact characteristics were investigated. In addition, a 3 D progressive damage numerical model matching the experimental results was established. The results showed that the impact energy exerted a certain influence on the response characteristics of the sandwich structure, but did not change the development trend of the load curve. The sandwich panel was able to achieve the overall load-carrying potential for the impactor whose size was longer than the foldcore span (25 mm). In addition, as the sharpness of the impactor increased, the damage range of the sandwich panel became concentrated and the load-bearing capacity gradually decreased. As revealed by the findings, the maximum load and specific energy absorption of laminated sandwich panels were improved by 150 and 40% respectively compared to single sandwich panel at base position. Therefore, it is beneficial to appropriately reduce the core span and increase the number of laminations to improve impact resistance of foldcore sandwich in practical applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When an impactor strikes a layered target, both the impactor and the target experience waves. The waves produced travel and engage in interactions with other waves as well as the interfaces in the impactor-target system. For the impact problems on a layered mediumwith periodic properties and layered elastic media of Goupillaud-type (each layer has the same wave travel time), researchers have presented an analytical solution for stress variation with position and time within the target. However, the solution for an elastic media not satisfying the above conditions is not available in the literature. The present study fills this gap and finds the behaviour of a generalized layered medium to an impact problem. The response of the material at any position inside the layered medium is found by solving the interaction between waves, interfaces, and boundaries. The mass, momentum balance and constitutive relationship are solved to get the exact analytical expressions for particle velocity and stress for each possible wave interaction happening in the impactor and the layered medium. The expressions are utilized in a computer program to study the impact behaviour of a layered media. The code tracks each wave as it travels through the system and identifies those interactions that occur in the shortest time, uses the stress and velocity expression for that interaction, and updates the state of the material. When stress produced at the impact surface is tensile in nature, the impactor and target can be separated. The work can be applied to both finite and semi-infinite impactors and targets, and the layered medium does not necessarily have to be a periodic layered media or a Goupillaud-type medium. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We measured oxygen isotope ratios of 16 silicate fragments from seven aerogel tracks (turnip-like type B tracks 77, 149, 172, 191, and 220; carrot-like type A tracks 22 and 175) of the comet 81P/Wild 2 collector from NASA's Stardust mission using secondary ion mass spectrometry. Thirteen were prepared by ultramicrotomy; three from track 220 were prepared by sputtering resin blocks using a SIMS Kohler beam, a new procedure aiming to mine as many cometary particles encased in aerogel/resin as possible. Combining new and literature results, we recognized that most silicate fragments of individual type B tracks have diverse mineralogy but consistent mass-independent fractionation of oxygen isotopes (Δ17O = δ17O − 0.52 × δ18O). These observations suggest that their impactors are loosely bound aggregates of unequilibrated materials originating mainly from similar protoplanetary disk regions, resembling the cluster IDP U2-20-GCA. Furthermore, silicate fragments from type A track 22 have almost identical mineralogy and Δ17O values, confirming that its impactor is a single chondrule-like fragment. The terminal particle of type A track 175 is pure forsterite with Δ17O of ∼ –23 ‰. Six iron-rich fragments of this study have positive oxygen isotope ratios (Δ17O∼ +2 ‰) and ordinary chondrite chondrule-like olivine compositions. Together with five similar fragments in the literature, a unique population (Mg# ≤ 86) of Wild 2 fragments that resemble chondrules from the inner solar system (O-E-R) chondrites or the outer solar system CH-CB chondrites was identified. The remaining 16O-poor Wild 2 fragments are Mg# ≥ 79 silicates with Δ17O ∼ –2 ‰ and a small amount of Mg# ≤ 79 silicates with Δ17O ∼ 0 ‰, which are most consistent with CR chondrite chondrules. Thus, we conclude that in addition to the possible major source of CR chondrite chondrule-like materials, the inner solar system or CH-CB chondrule-like materials are a minor component of comet Wild 2, like the cluster IDP U2-20-GCA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The minimal sizes of impactors that produced asteroid families were calculated, and their maximal sizes, i.e. the size that corresponds to head-on collisions, were estimated. We used data for 16 large families and the physical parameters of some members of these families available in NASA's JPL updated in 2022. We found that the typical minimal sizes of family-forming impactors were of the order of one-tenth the size of the parent bodies (PBs). The Themis family, for which the ratio of the radii r imp/ R PB = 0.08 and the mass loss is as large as 0.55, presents an example. The families of Juno and Euphrosyne, with the impactor to PB size ratio of an order of 0.01, are rather exceptional. The PBs of Juno and Euphrosyne families lost only 0.0014 and 0.0061 of their mass, respectively. It was found that the double structure of the Vesta family could have originated from two impacts by the bodies with radii as small as about 4 km, at least. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Even though the influence of impact energy on the low velocity impact of laminated plate is well reported, the influence of relative mass of the impactor has not been addressed extensively. This work investigates the effect of impactor mass relative to that of target and other associated factors like impactor velocity and the target plate size on the impact response of a GLARE plate. A 3 D finite element analysis incorporating Newmark-β method and Hertzian contact is used considering appropriate contact stiffness to evaluate the contact force. Results show that the impactor mass significantly influences the contact force and interfacial delamination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ability to collect size-fractionated airborne particles that contain viable bacteria and fungi directly into liquid medium while also maintaining their viability is critical for assessing exposure risks. In this study, we present the BioCascade impactor, a novel device designed to collect airborne particles into liquid based on their aerodynamic diameter in three sequential stages (>9.74, 3.94–9.74, and 1.38–3.94 µm when operated at 8.5 L/min). Aerosol samples containing microorganisms—either Saccharomyces kudriavzevii or Micrococcus luteus, were used to evaluate the performance of the BioCascade (BC) paired with either the VIable Virus Aerosol Sampler (VIVAS) or a gelatin filter (GF) as stage 4 to collect particles <1.38 µm. Stages 2 and 3 collected the largest fractions of viable S. kudriavzevii when paired with VIVAS (0.468) and GF (0.519), respectively. Stage 3 collected the largest fraction of viable M. luteus particles in both BC + VIVAS (0.791) and BC + GF (0.950) configurations. The distribution function of viable microorganisms was consistent with the size distributions measured by the Aerodynamic Particle Sizer. Testing with both bioaerosol species confirmed no internal loss and no re-aerosolization occurred within the BC. Irrespective of the bioaerosol tested, stages 1, 3, and 4 maintained ≥ 80% of viability, while stage 2 maintained only 37% and 73% of viable S. kudriavzevii and M. luteus, respectively. The low viability that occurred in stage 2 warrants further investigation. Our work shows that the BC can efficiently size-classify and collect bioaerosols without re-aerosolization and effectively maintain the viability of collected microorganisms. Copyright © 2024 American Association for Aerosol Research [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graded density impactors (GDIs) are multi-material composite impactors used in gas gun experiments to tailor the drive conditions imparted to a sample test material. Previous graded density impactors generally rely on thin, but discrete, layers of different materials. The thinner and the greater number of layers will result in smoother compression. Taken to the limit of very thin layers would be pure material 1 at one surface, such as the front surface of an impactor, smoothly transitioning at the atomic scale to pure material 2 on the back surface. Such an impactor can initially shock, then smoothly compresses a material during a dynamic experiment. This type of experiment can serve to explore a larger region of thermodynamic space than a single or even multi-shock experiments. An overview of how graded density impactors are made is reviewed and sample results are given. A strategy for modeling these kinds of impactors is presented. The length scales of constituent mixing are given from the experimental build through electrochemical-deposition. Equation of state models for pure constituents and their subsequent mixtures are presented. It is demonstrated that the time scales for pressure and temperature equilibration, for atomically mixed GDIs, are short enough to be a justifiable closure for the resulting multiphase flow. Furthermore, we present simulation results of dynamic shock followed by a ramp compression, utilizing a silver/gold graded density impactor, onto a tantalum sample. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on numerical simulations carried out using numerical methods of continuum mechanics, the influence on the depth of craters, formed in steel barriers of various strengths, geometric and kinematic parameters of elongated cylindrical copper strikers, simulating elements of a cumulative jet, in the range from 0.3 to 8 km/s. For description the behavior of materials of the impactor and barrier, the model of a compressible elastic-plastic medium with a variable value of the yield strength. Determined that the classical hydro dynamic theory of the penetration of a cumulative jet into a barrier is not takes into account the effects of the inertial movement of the barrier after triggering separately taken element (aftereffect). The existence of three regimes is distinguished shock interaction-high-speed, when the elements behave like a liquid body, are worked out, but not inhibited; low speed, when the elements behave like solid body and are decelerated as a whole and intermediate, when the elements are decelerated and are deformed at the same time. It is shown that the braking mode of copper elements at high-speed impact on a steel armored barrier is realized at speeds smaller 0.8–1 km/s. It is shown that when interacting with an obstacle, high-speed fragmented cumulative jet, the total depth of armor penetration will be greater, than this is predicted by the classical hydrodynamic theory of penetration, and the more more, the higher the speed of the elements and the greater the distance between them on the one hand and less strength of the barrier on the other side. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, five three-dimensional angle-interlock fabrics with different warp and weft densities were fabricated using 1000D Kevlar filaments. The Kevlar/EP composites were prepared by vacuum-assisted molding techniques. The low-velocity impact property of the composite was tested, focusing on the effects of the warp and weft densities, impact energy, impactor shape, and impactor diameter. The damage area, dent depth, and crack lengths in the warp and weft direction were used to evaluate the impact performance, and the specimens were compared with plain-weave composites with similar areal densities. The dominant failure mode of the conical impactor was fiber fracture, while the dominant failure mode of the hemispherical impactor was fiber–resin debonding. The cylindrical impactor showed only minor resin fragmentation. The residual flexural strength of the composite after impact was tested to provide insights into its mechanical properties. The study findings will provide a theoretical basis for the optimization of the design of impact-resistant structures using such materials and facilitate their engineering applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The pressure drop at any cascade impactor stage is related to the open area of nozzles at that stage. Pressure drop measurement therefore can potentially test whether the nozzles of a given stage are within the range specified for continued use for testing of inhalable drug products. Previous such efforts, however, have been hindered by the measurement precision required for making a pass/fail decision about these used impactors. In this study, we articulate the error analysis for a pressure drop measurement system managed with a critical flow venturi (CFV) and show that the resultant uncertainty in the effective diameter of used Next Generation Impactor (NGI) and Andersen-type impactor stages is generally small compared to the specification range. This result enables the user to make a pass/fail decision regarding suitability for continued use. Methods: We develop the equations governing the relationship between stage pressure drop and the effective diameter of each stage of a used impactor. These equations show that pressure drop measurements can indicate only the change (if any) in the effective diameter between a previous measurement and the current measurement. Propagation-of-error principles therefore show that the uncertainty of both measurements affects the resulting uncertainty. Results: The test uncertainty ratio (analytical power) of a CFV-managed pressure drop measurement system exceeds six for all but stage one of the NGI and for stages −1 and −2 of the Andersen-type impactor. The stage-one nozzle of the NGI is readily qualified with a Class X pin. Conclusions: The CFV-managed flow system described in Part I is sufficiently precise to enable a decision to be made about whether used impactor nozzles are suitable for continued use for testing of registered inhalable drug products. Examination of the industrial viability of the technology will require long-term testing in real-world settings with comparison to optical inspection methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cascade impactors are essential for measuring the aerodynamic particle size distribution delivered by metered dose, dry powder, and similar inhalable drug products. For quality control of used impactors, periodic optical inspection of the nozzles of each impactor stage (stage mensuration) is currently the only method sufficiently precise to test whether used impactors are suitable for continued use, in accord with pharmacopeial standards. Here, we demonstrate a new method for quality control of used impactors. The method combines stage-wise pressure-drop measurement with a critical flow venturi (CFV) for air flow management. This technique avoids the unacceptably large uncertainty in conventional air flow rate measurements and instead relies on pressure and temperature measurement upstream of the CFV. These measurements can be made precisely with affordable equipment. Methods: We placed a toroidally shaped CFV downstream of a Next Generation Impactor™** (NGI) and precisely measured the stagnation pressure (±0.02%) and temperature (±0.03%) upstream of this CFV at impactor inlet flow rates close to 60 L/min. Pressure-drop measurements (±0.25%) at stages 3–7 and the micro-orifice collector were made with capacitive diaphragm transducers and with a special lid to the NGI that allowed pneumatic connection to the interstage passageways before and after each impactor stage. Results: The measured pressure drop values matched, to fractional percentage precision, those predicted by the incompressible flow theory through the nozzles and the compressible flow theory through the CFV. Conclusions: Practical equipment has been assembled that measures, to fractional percentage precision, the pressure drop through impactor nozzles at precisely managed flow conditions. The experimental results support the relevant flow principles. The results, thereby, support the use of this method for quantifying whether used impactor stages are suitable for continued use in the testing of registered inhalable drug products, in accord with pharmacopeial standards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, the escalating risk of natural disasters caused by Near-Earth Objects (NEOs) has garnered heightened scrutiny, particularly in the aftermath of the 2013 Chelyabinsk event. This has prompted increased interest from governmental and supranational entities, leading to the formulation of various measures and strategies aimed at mitigating the potential threat posed by NEOs. This paper delves into the analysis of the 2011 AG5 asteroid within the context of small celestial bodies (e.g., asteroids, comets, or meteoroids) exhibiting resonant orbits with Earth's heliocentric revolution. Initial observations in 2011 raised alarms regarding the asteroid's orbital parameters, indicating a significant risk of Earth impact during its resonant encounter in 2040. Subsequent observations, however, mitigated these concerns. Here, we manipulate the orbital elements of the 2011 AG5 asteroid to simulate its behavior as a virtual impactor (a virtual asteroid whose orbit could impact Earth). This modification facilitates the assessment of impact mitigation resulting from a deflection maneuver utilizing a kinetic impactor. The deflection maneuver, characterized as an impulsive change in the asteroid's momentum, is executed during a resonant encounter occurring approximately two decades before the potential impact date. The paper systematically evaluates the dependence of the deflection maneuver's efficacy on critical parameters, including the position along the orbit, epoch, and momentum enhancement factor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study presents experimental results of compression after impact (CAI) strength testing of foam core sandwich structure with carbon/epoxy face sheets impacted at three different energies with either a blunt or sharp tip impactor. The impact energies used were chosen to span the barely visible impact damage (BVID) thresholds for the sharp (4.1 J) and blunt (12.9 J) impactors with an impact energy approximately halfway between these (8.1 J) also used. While most impact testing on composites utilize a hemispherical (blunt) impactor, actual damage to a part may be due to an object impacting the part that is not blunt, but sharp and the impact response and resulting CAI strength values may be different for a given impact energy level. In this study, with regards to the impact response, the sandwich specimens showed larger transverse displacements (by about a factor of two) during the impact event when impacted by a sharp impactor versus a blunt impactor. The maximum load of impact was larger for the blunt impactor by about a factor of three. The barely visible impact damage (BVID) threshold energy was lower by about a factor of three for the sharp impactor. The absorbed energy of impact was higher for the sharp impactor. The CAI strength results showed that the sharp impactor gave lower average CAI strength values at the lowest impact energy level used, slightly lower average CAI strength values for the medium impact energy used and about the same average CAI strength values for the highest impact energy used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An experimental method is developed that makes it possible to visualize the onset and spreading of damage in each layer of transparent armor. The damage development dynamics in multilayer packages consisting of four -mm layers and eight -mm layers is analyzed. The evolution of damage is obtained under the influence of a 12.7-mm bullet with a two-component core with a total mass of 59.2 g and a 7.62-mm bullet with a two-component core with a total mass of 10.9 g along the normal and at an acute angle in a range of impact velocities of 777–797 m/s. The experimental data are compared with the numerical simulation of interaction between an impactor and a multilayer transparent target. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Overheight truck collision with a bridge superstructure can cause extensive structural damage and result in severe traffic congestion. Placing protection beams in front of the fascia girder is one of the common countermeasures to guard against such events. However, little research has been done on this topic in the past and there are no standard guidelines for designing these protection beams. High-fidelity numerical simulations are conducted to formulate a demand model for protection beams subjected to overheight truck impact scenarios involving three different trailer models (representing soft, semirigid, and rigid impactors), a range of truck weights and velocities, and a number of beam sections and lengths. A validated demand model is proposed to represent the loading pulses caused by the different types of impactors. Two performance levels for the protection beam are suggested. Simulation data are used to propose a reliable machine-learning (ML) model for the classification of beam performance as a function of the parameters of the impacting truck and protection beam. The ML model and demand function are complementary to each other and enable rapid and accurate assessments, respectively, of the performance of protection beams during impact scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When a blunt body impacts an air–water interface, large hydrodynamic forces often arise, a phenomenon many of us have unfortunately experienced in a failed dive or 'belly flop'. Beyond assessing risk to biological divers, an understanding and methods for remediation of such slamming forces are critical to the design of numerous engineered naval and aerospace structures. Herein we systematically investigate the role of impactor elasticity on the resultant structural loads in perhaps the simplest possible scenario: the water entry of a simple harmonic oscillator. Contrary to conventional intuition, we find that 'softening' the impactor does not always reduce the peak impact force, but may also increase the force as compared with a fully rigid counterpart. Through our combined experimental and theoretical investigation, we demonstrate that the transition from force reduction to force amplification is delineated by a critical 'hydroelastic' factor that relates the hydrodynamic and elastic time scales of the problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Earth's crust, Ni is generally concentrated in mafic and ultramafic rocks and is coupled with Mg in Mg-olivine, Mg-pyroxene and spinel. Whether the Ni-rich, and in general, the mafic component of Australasian tektites and microtektites is terrestrial or meteoritic is still debated. To test the origin of the Ni-rich component, we studied the Ni versus Mg distribution in a large geochemical database of Australasian tektites (n = 208) and microtektites (n = 238) from the literature. Nickel contents of up to 428 µg/g in tektites and 678 µg/g in microtektites covary with Mg in tektites and in most (∼85%) of the microtektites defining a mixing trend between crustal and chondritic values, thereby documenting the chondritic origin of the Ni-rich component in Australasian tektites/microtektites. Mixing calculations indicate up to 4% and up to 6% by weight chondritic component in tektites and microtektites, respectively. A possible mafic component of terrestrial origin is observed in a minority of tektite and microtektite specimens. This finding is consistent with previous works suggesting a possible occurrence of a chondritic signature in high-Ni tektites, based on the study of highly siderophile elements and Os isotopes, and high-Ni microtektites, based on Ni, Co, and Cr ratios. The combined geochemical and isotopic analyses of high-Ni tektites and microtektites in collections worldwide may thus reveal the chondritic impactor type that generated one of the presumably largest impacts in the Cenozoic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Knowledge of the changes in the behavior of human soft tissue stiffness during physical impact in human–machine interaction (HMI) plays a vital role in the development of biofidelity testing devices such as a human dummy. These testing devices are widely applied as an effective means to validate the safety of machinery during dynamic or static contact with humans in HMI. In this study, we assess changes in soft tissue stiffness in the upper arm of individuals under both dynamic (0.7 and 0.25 m/s) and quasi‐static (QS) impacts under a constrained contact condition. Three impactor shapes (cylindrical, cubic, and spherical) are used in this study. Impact experiments are conducted using impactors attached to a pendulum. The soft‐tissue displacement is determined using an ultrasound device. The impact force‐displacement curves illustrate the nonlinear behavior of the soft tissue stiffness under both dynamic and QS impacts. By utilizing the "Linear Mixed Model" statistical analysis, we found that changes in the impact velocity significantly influenced the changes in the nonlinear behavior of soft tissue stiffness while there was no significant effect of the changes in the impactor shape on the nonlinear behavior of the soft tissue stiffness. Additionally, we revealed that the changes in the soft tissue stiffness are influenced by the size of the contact area. Moreover, we demonstrated a range of changes in soft tissue stiffness for different impact velocities, which provide valuable information for developing future validation test devices in HMI, such as the design and evaluation of dummy skin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Inhaled antimuscarinics are a cornerstone of the management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. This article details a series of five pharmacokinetic (PK) studies comparing a generic tiotropium dry powder inhaler (DPI) to Spiriva HandiHaler, the realistic in vitro methods used to support those studies, and the related in vitro–in vivo correlations (IVIVCs). Methods: All five PK studies were of open-label, single-dose, crossover design with test and reference treatments administered to healthy subjects. Following unexpected results in the first three PK studies, a realistic impactor method was developed comprising an Oropharyngeal Consortium (OPC) mouth–throat and simulated inspiratory profiles in conjunction with a Next Generation Impactor (NGI). Mass fractions and the in vitro whole lung dose were estimated for the test product and Spiriva® HandiHaler® using this method, and IVIVCs derived. Results: Bioequivalence could not be demonstrated for Cmax in the first three PK studies (test/reference ratios ranging from 83.1% to 131.8%), although was observed for AUCt. Reanalysis of the corresponding biobatches with the realistic NGI method revealed in vitro ratios aligned with these PK data (in contrast to the compendial NGI data) and thus inadvertent selection of "mismatched" biobatches. Two further PK studies were undertaken, supported by the realistic NGI method. With the comparison of test and reference products similarly positioned within their respective product performance distributions, bioequivalence was confirmed in both studies. IVIVCs based on mass fractions as per the realistic NGI method were robust and highly predictive of PK outcomes. Conclusions: The test tiotropium DPI and Spiriva HandiHaler were bioequivalent when equitable biobatch comparisons, based on realistic NGI testing, were performed. The observations from this program support the utility of realistic test methods for inhaled product development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Damage features of the ice sheet have been achieving increasing attention due to its important engineering applications, but there still lacks related research concerning the ice damage characteristics under impacting load. In this paper, the JH-2 constitutive model is applied to describe the ice material properties. The numerical simulations of ice material suffering failure mode were conducted to validate the effectiveness of ice material. With the validated ice material model, studies are conducted to investigate the general damage features of ice sheets subjected to impacting load. The influence factors including head shapes of the impactor, water support and non-dimensional mass and length to ratios of impactor on ice damage are investigated. Moreover, the penetration load and combination of underwater explosion load acting on the ice sheet are discussed. The results show that the head shape of the impactor has a significant influence on ice damage characteristics during the whole ice-breaking process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The popularity of instrumented mouthguards (iMGs) use to measure head impact kinematics in contact sports is growing. To accurately compare between systems, mouthguards should be subjected to standardised laboratory validation testing. The study aimed to establish the validity and reliability of a mouthguard system under independently collected pendulum impactor conditions. A NOCSAE anthropometric testing device with attached mouthguard was impacted in four different locations (front, front boss, rear, rear boss) at four target linear accelerations (25, 50, 75 and 100 g) with two different impactor caps (padded and rigid). Peak linear acceleration, peak rotational velocity and peak rotational acceleration values from the mouthguard were compared against the reference data with a battery of statistical tests, namely R squared values, Lin's concordance correlation coefficient, intraclass correlation coefficients and Bland Altman analysis. Results indicate the iMG produces valid and reliable data comparable to that of the anthropomorphic testing device reference, with all measured variables reported 'excellent' intraclass correlation coefficients above 0.95; concordance correlation coefficients above 0.95; minimal average bias with Bland Altman analysis and R squared values above 0.92 for all measured variables. Results indicate the iMG is appropriately valid and reliable enough to next establish on-field validity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quasi-isentropic (ramp) compression is now a well-established experimental method and so are the analysis techniques to give Lagrangian sound speed, pressure, and density along the sample material's isentrope. A shock followed by ramp compression is a natural extension to investigate, for example, shock melt and refreeze on compression, or isentropes of states off the Hugoniot or principal isentrope. In practice, graded-density impactors produce initial shocks, compression by shaped laser pulses may be unable to produce a smooth pressure increase from zero, and incidental perturbations on the drive pulse may also give rise to shocks, so robust shock-ramp analysis methods will be needed. Appropriate analysis methods are needed for shock-ramp experiments, based on those for quasi-isentropic compression, and these require validation. This paper describes three different analyses of a shock-ramp test problem, including an assessment of their estimated errors. The methods tested were based on hydrodynamic characteristics or integration backward in space. All methods gave the known Lagrangian sound speed to within ∼1%, and pressure and volume to within less than 2% and 1%, demonstrating that the analysis methods of isentropic compression experiments can be confidently extended to the analysis of shock and ramp compression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Contact. Potentially hazardous asteroids (PHA) in Earth-crossing orbits pose a constant threat to life on Earth. Several mitigation methods have been proposed, and the most feasible technique appears to be the disintegration of the impactor and the generation of a fragment cloud by explosive penetrators at interception. However, mitigation analyses tend to neglect the effect of orbital dynamics on the trajectory of fragments. Aims. We aim to study the effect of orbital dynamics of the impactor's cloud on the number of fragments that hit the Earth, assuming different interception dates. We investigate the effect of self-gravitational cohesion and the axial rotation of the impactor. Methods. We computed the orbits of 105 fragments with a high-precision direct N-body integrator of the eighth order, running on GPUs. We considered orbital perturbations from all large bodies in the Solar System and the self-gravity of the cloud fragments. Results. Using a series of numerical experiments, we show that orbital shear causes the fragment cloud to adopt the shape of a triaxial ellipsoid. The shape and alignment of the triaxial ellipsoid are strongly modulated by the cloud's orbital trajectory and, hence, the impact cross-section of the cloud with respect to the Earth. Therefore, the number of fragments hitting the Earth is strongly influenced by the orbit of the impactor and the time of interception. A minimum number of impacts occur for a well-defined orientation of the impactor rotational axis, depending on the date of interception. Conclusions. To minimise the lethal consequences of an PHA's impact, a well-constrained interception timing is necessary. A too-early interception may not be ideal for PHAs in the Apollo or Aten groups. Thus, we find that the best time to intercept PHA is when it is at the pericentre of its orbit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The combination of the hydraulic impactor and positive displacement motor (PDM) is becoming more and more popular in drilling engineering. However, the negatives of the PDM on the impactor cannot be ignored. To improve the performance of the technique, the influence of fluid pulsation from the PDM on the hydraulic impactor was studied first; then, the structure of the impactor was optimized to improve its impact force; finally, field tests were carried out in 2 wells in the shallow formation. The results indicate that the fluid fluctuation generated in the PDM can restrain the performance of the impactor, and that the impact force can be increased by 24.4% to 28.6% through the optimization of design. Field tests show that this technique can further improve the drilling efficiency and rotating stability of the polycrystalline diamond compact bit, and that the rate of penetration and bit footage increase by 32.5% and 34.6%, respectively. In the study, the effect of inlet fluid fluctuation on the performance of the hydraulic impactor was studied using the computational fluid dynamics method. This is unlike other studies that have mostly considered the inlet fluid as a steady flow. Furthermore, the performance of the combine used of the impactor and PDM can be improved through structural optimization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glass fiber trapezoidal corrugated sandwich structures are composed of trapezoidal cores and glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) panels. A series of low-velocity impact tests were conducted to investigate the impact resistance performance, considering the effects of impact position, impactor shape, and impactor diameter on the damage mechanism of sandwich structures. When the impactor shape and impact energy remain constant, the maximum impact load at the node impact point is higher than at the base, while the displacement of impact at the base is significantly higher than that at the node. Secondly, when the impactor diameter and energy of the impactor are the same, the hemispherical impactor requires less penetration energy to impact the sandwich structure compared to the flat impactor. Comparing the shape of the impactor, it is found that the smaller the contact surface of the impactor, the more concentrated the stress, and the lower the required penetration energy. Finally, when the impactor shape and impact energy are the same, as the diameter of impactor increases, the damage expansion during impacting on the sandwich structure becomes more sufficient, resulting in decreased impact displacement and smaller impact damage caused to the sandwich structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of elastomeric damping pads, softening the collision of hard objects, is investigated comparing the reference silicone elastomer and the polydomain nematic liquid crystalline elastomer, which has a far superior internal dissipation mechanism. We specifically focus not just on the energy dissipation, but also on the momentum conservation and transfer during the collision, because the latter determines the force exerted on the target and/or the impactor—and it is the force that does the damage during the short time of an impact, while the energy might be dissipated on a much longer time scale. To better assess the momentum transfer, we compare the collision with a very heavy object and the collision with a comparable mass, when some of the impact momentum is retained in the target receding away from the collision. We also propose a method to estimate the optimal thickness of an elastomer damping pad for minimising the energy in impactor rebound. It has been found that thicker pads introduce a large elastic rebound and the optimal thickness is therefore the thinnest possible pad that does not suffer from mechanical failure. We find good agreement between our estimate of the minimal thickness of the elastomer before the puncture through occurs and the experimental observations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study introduces a theory about an Evander-size impact on the surface of Dione. Our study suspects a relatively low-velocity (≤5 km/s) collision between a ca. 50–80 km diameter object and Dione, which might have resulted in the resurfacing of one of the satellite's intermediate cratered terrains in various ways, such as surface planing by "plowing" by ricocheting ejectiles, ejecta blanket covering, partial melting, and impact-triggered diapir formation associated with cryotectonism and effusive cryo-slurry outflows. Modeling the parameters of an impact of such a size and mapping the potential secondary crater distribution in the target location may function as the first test of plausibility to reveal the location of such a collision, which may be hidden by younger impact marks formed during, e.g., the Antenor, Dido, Romulus, and Remus collision events. The source of the impactor might have been Saturn-specific planetocentric debris, a unique impactor population suspected in the Saturnian system. Other possible candidates are asteroid(s) appearing during the outer Solar System's heavy bombardment period, or a collision, which might have happened during the "giant impact phase" in the early Saturnian system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract—The results of a three-dimensional numerical simulation of the oblique impacts of ten-kilometer asteroids at an angle of 45° onto a solid surface and into an ocean with a depth of 1 to 6 km are presented. The maximum masses of water, impactor, and soil ejected into the atmosphere and the masses of water, impactor material, and soil remaining in the atmosphere 10 min after the impact are calculated. The mass of vaporized ejecta is determined. It is shown that there are 2–5 times more impactor material and soil ejected into the atmosphere during oblique impacts than during vertical impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The complex distribution of particle charge states resulting from neutralization processes by radioactive or soft X-ray charge neutralizers is a well-documented problem in aerosol science. Here, we demonstrate that non-idealities in the collection efficiency of an impactor allows for the transmission of an unexpected population of multiply charged particles by a differential mobility analyzer that can bias optical measurements. The extinction cross sections (Cext) of ammonium sulfate particles were quantified using cavity ring-down spectroscopy and particle counting. Particles were selected by electrical mobility (i.e., a metric of particle size) using a differential mobility analyzer (DMA) or electrical mobility and mass selected by a tandem DMA and aerosol particle mass analyzer (APM), respectively, to elucidate multiple charging artifacts. Measured Cext exhibited statistically significant differences at particle sizes near the impactor cut point implying that these multiply charged particles should not be present and could not be confirmed by parallel size distribution measurements. Additionally, comparison of Cext with Mie theory demonstrates that misclassification of the multiply charged particles can give rise to numerically accurate results. To understand these observations, the collection efficiency (CE) of four impactors from similar electrostatic classifiers was investigated. From these measurements, it was determined that the nominal and actual diameters of the impactors differed by −0.5% (457 μm vs. (455 ± 1) μm, respectively (uncertainty is 1σ standard deviation)) but the average Stk50 (the Stokes number at the cut-point, D50) values differed by ≈ 23% (0.23 vs. 0.18 ± 0.01, respectively). The measured CE as a function of √Stk (a metric of particle aerodynamic size) exhibits a long tail toward higher √Stk values, allowing for transmission of the larger and multiply charged particles observed in the optical measurements. These measurements highlight the utility of using orthogonal, spectroscopic methods to quantify the presence of multiply charged particles. Copyright © 2023 American Association for Aerosol Research [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deck structures subjected to drop-weight low-velocity impact are critical safety elements for ships and offshore structures. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to propose experimental research on dynamic responses of deck structures composed of stiffened plates subjected to drop-weight impact of a wedge impactor. The first step was to fabricate a conventional stiffened plate specimen and a strengthened stiffened plate specimen, as well as a drop-weight impact tower. Then, drop-weight impact tests were carried out. Test results show that local deformation and fracture occurred in the impact area. A sharp wedge impactor caused premature fracture, even under relative low impact energy; the permanent lateral deformation of the stiffened plate was reduced by 20–26% by the strengthening effect of a strengthening stiffer; residual stress and the stress concentration of the cross-joint caused by welding may cause undesired brittle fracture. The present investigation provides useful insight for improving the crashworthiness design of the deck structure of ships and offshore structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]