Search

Beta-phase gallium oxide (β -Ga2O3) is a promising semiconductor for high frequency, high temperature, and high voltage applications. In addition to the β -phase, numerous other polymorphs exist and understanding the competition between phases is critical to control practical devices. The phase formation sequence of Ga2O3, starting from amorphous thin films, was determined using lateral-gradient laser spike annealing at peak temperatures of 500–1400 °C on 400 μs to 10 ms timescales, with transformations characterized by optical microscopy, x-ray diffraction, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The resulting phase processing map showed the γ -phase, a defect-spinel structure, first nucleating under all annealing times for temperatures from 650 to 800 °C. The cross-sectional TEM at the onset of the γ -phase formation showed nucleation near the film center with no evidence of heterogeneous nucleation at the interfaces. For temperatures above 850 °C, the thermodynamically stable β -phase was observed. For anneals of 1–4 ms and temperatures below 1200 °C, small randomly oriented grains were observed. Large grains were observed for anneals below 1 ms and above 1200 °C, with anneals above 4 ms and 1200 °C resulting in textured films. The formation of the γ -phase prior to β -phase, coupled with the observed grain structure, suggests that the γ -phase is kinetically preferred during thermal annealing of amorphous films, with β -phase subsequently forming by nucleation at higher temperatures. The low surface energy of the γ -phase implied by these results suggests an explanation for the widely observed γ -phase inclusions in β -phase Ga2O3 films grown by a variety of synthesis methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conductive homoepitaxial Si-doped β-Ga2O3 films were fabricated by pulsed laser deposition with an as-deposited 2323 S cm−1 conductivity (resistivity = 4.3 × 10−4 Ω-cm, carrier concentration = 2.24 × 1020 cm−3, mobility = 64.5 cm2 V−1 s−1, and electrical activation efficiency = 77%). High quality homoepitaxial films deposited on commercial (010) Fe-compensated β-Ga2O substrates were determined by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy and x-ray diffraction. The β-Ga2O3 films have ∼70% transparency from 3.7 eV (335 nm) to 0.56 eV (2214 nm). The combination of high conductivity and transparency offers promise for numerous ultrawide bandgap electronics and optoelectronic applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Designing high-performance nonprecious electrocatalysts to replace Pt for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) has been a key challenge for advancing fuel cell technologies. Here, we report a systematic study of 15 different AB2O4/C spinel nanoparticles with well-controlled octahedral morphology. The 3 most active ORR electrocatalysts were MnCo2O4/C, CoMn2O4/C, and CoFe2O4/C. CoMn2O4/C exhibited a half-wave potential of 0.89 V in 1 M KOH, equal to the benchmark activity of Pt/C, which was ascribed to charge transfer between Co and Mn, as evidenced by X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) provided atomic-scale, spatially resolved images, and high-energy-resolution electron-loss near-edge structure (ELNES) enabled fingerprinting the local chemical environment around the active sites. The most active MnCo2O4/C was shown to have a unique Co-Mn core–shell structure. ELNES spectra indicate that the Co in the core is predominantly Co2.7+ while in the shell, it is mainly Co2+. Broader Mn ELNES spectra indicate less-ordered nearest oxygen neighbors. Co in the shell occupies mainly tetrahedral sites, which are likely candidates as the active sites for the ORR. Such microscopic-level investigation probes the heterogeneous electronic structure at the single-nanoparticle level, and may provide a more rational basis for the design of electrocatalysts for alkaline fuel cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The contrast due to a strain field at an amorphous silicon/crystalline silicon (a-Si/c-Si) interface relative to the bulk crystal is studied with a scanning transmission electron microscope equipped with a low angle annular dark field (LAADF) detector and a high angle ADF (HAADF) detector. Experimental observations suggest that strain contrast depends closely on sample thickness and collection angle. For a thin sample (<100 Å) strain contrast is negative in both the LAADF and HAADF images. For a thick sample (>150 Å) strain contrast is positive in the LAADF image and negative in the HAADF image. Theoretical calculations of the effect of a random strain field are carried out. First, a simple model based on atomic scattering with an extra Debye–Waller factor is employed. It predicts a positive strain contrast in the LAADF image and no contrast in the HAADF image. The simple model fails for the HAADF contrast because it does not consider the propagation process of the electron beam inside the sample. Therefore multislice simulations including propagation details are carried out. The multislice simulation results agree well with the experimental observations. A measure of the strain amplitude is attained by comparing the experimental data with multislice simulation results. Quantitative measurements of strain contrast are only possible if the sample thickness is known. © 2004 American Institute of Physics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alkaline anion exchange membranes (AAEMs) are an important component of alkaline exchange membrane fuel cells (AEMFCs), which facilitate the efficient conversion of fuels to electricity using nonplatinum electrode catalysts. However, low hydroxide conductivity and poor long-term alkaline stability of AAEMs are the major limitations for the widespread application of AEMFCs. In this paper, we report the synthesis of highly conductive and chemically stable AAEMs from the living polymerization of trans-cyclooctenes. A trans-cyclooctene-fused imidazolium monomer was designed and synthesized on gram scale. Using these highly ring-strained monomers, we produced a range of block and random copolymers. Surprisingly, AAEMs made from the random copolymer exhibited much higher conductivities than their block copolymer analogs. Investigation by transmission electron microscopy showed that the block copolymers had a disordered microphase segregation which likely impeded ion conduction. A cross-linked random copolymer demonstrated a high level of hydroxide conductivity (134 mS/cm at 80 °C). More importantly, the membranes exhibited excellent chemical stability due to the incorporation of highly alkaline-stable multisubstituted imidazolium cations. No chemical degradation was detected by 1H NMR spectroscopy when the polymers were treated with 2 M KOH in CD3OH at 80 °C for 30 d. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and related techniques have brought unique insights to graphene research, demonstrating remarkable flexibility in characterizations ranging from atomic ordering to charge distribution. Such TEM studies have helped advance areas including the understanding of graphene growth and the effects of defects and dopants on the mechanical and electrical properties of graphene. Electron microscopy has proved particularly useful in determining the structure of crystals and grain boundaries across six orders of magnitude—from the shapes, arrangements, and stacking sequences of grains to the atomic arrangements at grain boundaries. Meanwhile, graphene is becoming a promising two-dimensional laboratory bench for electron microscopy, for example, turning graphene into a medium for nanosculpting by transforming buckyballs into graphene and vice versa. Finally, graphene has been used as an ultrathin support membrane for TEM, enabling studies of the motion of single atoms, direct imaging of two-dimensional amorphous materials, and even formation of nano-aquaria for imaging bacteria or nanoparticles in liquid media. Rapid developments in the fields of both electron microscopy and graphene will continue to provide a rich ground for future insights. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Beta-phase gallium oxide (β -Ga2O3) is a promising semiconductor for high frequency, high temperature, and high voltage applications. In addition to the β -phase, numerous other polymorphs exist and understanding the competition between phases is critical to control practical devices. The phase formation sequence of Ga2O3, starting from amorphous thin films, was determined using lateral-gradient laser spike annealing at peak temperatures of 500–1400 °C on 400 μs to 10 ms timescales, with transformations characterized by optical microscopy, x-ray diffraction, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The resulting phase processing map showed the γ -phase, a defect-spinel structure, first nucleating under all annealing times for temperatures from 650 to 800 °C. The cross-sectional TEM at the onset of the γ -phase formation showed nucleation near the film center with no evidence of heterogeneous nucleation at the interfaces. For temperatures above 850 °C, the thermodynamically stable β -phase was observed. For anneals of 1–4 ms and temperatures below 1200 °C, small randomly oriented grains were observed. Large grains were observed for anneals below 1 ms and above 1200 °C, with anneals above 4 ms and 1200 °C resulting in textured films. The formation of the γ -phase prior to β -phase, coupled with the observed grain structure, suggests that the γ -phase is kinetically preferred during thermal annealing of amorphous films, with β -phase subsequently forming by nucleation at higher temperatures. The low surface energy of the γ -phase implied by these results suggests an explanation for the widely observed γ -phase inclusions in β -phase Ga2O3 films grown by a variety of synthesis methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A pore-scale model of a PEMFC cathode catalyst layer was developed using the pore network approach and used to predict polarization behavior. A volumetric image of a PEMFC catalyst layer was obtained using FIB-SEM with 4 nm resolution in all 3 directions. The original image only differentiated between solid and void, so a simple but effective algorithm was developed to insert tightly packed, but non-overlapping carbon spheres into the solid phase, which were then decorated with catalyst sites. The resultant image was a 4-phase image containing void, ionomer, carbon, and catalyst, each in proportion to the known Pt loading, carbon-to-ionomer ratio, and porosity. A multiphase pore network model was extracted from this image, and multiphysics simulations were conducted to predict the polarization behavior of an operating cell. It was shown that not only can beginning of life polarization performance be predicted with minimal fitting parameters, but degraded performance 30 k cycles was also well captured with no additional fitting. This latter result was accomplished by deleting catalyst sites from the network in proportion to the experimentally observed distribution of electrochemical surface area loss, obtained from TEM image of catalyst loading. The model included partitioning of oxygen into the ionomer phase, explicitly incorporating the oxygen transport resistance which dominates cell performance at higher current density. Although Knudsen diffusion is present at the scales present (< 100 nm), it represented a negligible fraction of the total transport resistance, which was dominated by the low solubility and slow diffusivity in the ionomer phase. This work showed that the performance of a typical PEMFC is highly dependent on the structural details of the catalyst layer, to the extent that polarization curves can be well predicted by direct inspection of an image of the catalyst layer. This work paves the way for a deeper understanding of the structure-performance relationship in these complex materials and the search for optimized catalyst layer designs. [Display omitted] • A 4-phase pore network model was extracted from a 3D image with 4 nm resolution. • Experimental polarization curves were well matched without fitting parameters. • Degradation due to ECSA loss was matched by deleting Pt sites from the network. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Structural rearrangements control a wide range of behavior in amorphous materials, and visualizing these atomic-scale rearrangements is critical for developing and refining models for how glasses bend, break, and melt. It is difficult, however, to directly image atomic motion in disordered solids. We demonstrate that using aberration-corrected transmission electron microscopy, we can excite and image atomic rearrangements in a two-dimensional silica glass--revealing a complex dance of elastic and plastic deformations, phase transitions, and their interplay. We identified the strain associated with individual ring rearrangements, observed the role of vacancies in shear deformation, and quantified fluctuations at a glass/liquid interface. These examples illustrate the wide-ranging and fundamental materials physics that can now be studied at atomic-resolution via transmission electron microscopy of two-dimensional glasses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphene produced by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is polycrystalline, and scattering of charge carriers at grain boundaries (GBs) could degrade its performance relative to exfoliated, single-crystal graphene. However, the electrical properties of GBs have so far been addressed indirectly without simultaneous knowledge of their locations and structures. We present electrical measurements on individual GBs in CVD graphene first imaged by transmission electron microscopy. Unexpectedly, the electrical conductance improves by one order of magnitude for GBs with better interdomain connectivity. Our study suggests that polycrystalline graphene with good stitching may allow for uniformly high electrical performance rivaling that of exfoliated samples, which we demonstrate using optimized growth conditions and device geometry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]