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Calcium carbide residue (CCR) has been identified as an effective replacement for traditional lime for the stabilization of expansive soils. The shrinkage of expansive clay severely threatens the foundation layers’ long-term stability. The efficacy of CCR stabilization in reducing compressibility and enhancing the strength and stiffness of clay has been widely reported; however, the calcium-based additive stabilized soil tends to lose its engineered integrity under field-exposed seasonal moisture variation, specifically, shrinkage induced by prolonged drying. In this study, the shrinkage characteristic of CCR-treated clay (6%, 9%, and 12%) slurry was investigated by digital image analysis and mercury displacement method to quantify volumetric shrinkage strain. The results were compared with those of 4% and 6% lime-treated clay, which revealed the higher efficacy of CCR in reducing shrinkage strain by 47–57%. A characteristic shrinkage curve that depicted the significant variation of shrinkage phases in CCR-treated clay samples is developed. The dominance of the proportional shrinkage phase is observed in both untreated and treated clay samples. The shrinkage caused by evaporation, hydration, and decalcification is postulated in treated clays. This study is expected to contribute to the understanding of shrinkage mechanisms of CCR-treated clay and assist in the future design of stabilized embankment sections or subgrade for unpaved roads. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Contamination of soil threatens the environment and can have a negative effect on soil strength parameters. Soil stabilization is one way to address this issue. In the present study, metakaolin geopolymer was used to stabilize contaminated clay. Initially, the effects of the concentration on the soil parameters was investigated. A combination of lead nitrate and zinc nitrate at a 1:1 ratio was used to contaminate the soil by introducing 1000, 5000 and 10,000 ppm of contaminants. The samples were subjected to a 7-day curing period after which the Atterberg limits, compaction, unconfined compressive strength (UCS), California bearing ratio (CBR) and pH tests were conducted. The results showed that the addition of 10,000 ppm of contaminant to the base soil decreased the CBR, UCS and pH by 21.07%, 23.37% and 15.51%, respectively. The most critical contaminant concentration was found to be 10,000 ppm. Next, soil samples contaminated with 10,000 ppm of lead and zinc nitrates was stabilized with 5%, 10% and 15% metakaolin geopolymer at curing times of 7, 14 and 28 days. After stabilization, the tests initially conducted on the contaminated samples without stabilizer were performed on samples stabilized with metakaolin geopolymer. The outcomes revealed that the soil strength parameters increased significantly with increases in the metakaolin geopolymer content and curing time. An increase in the curing time was shown to increase the UCS. The findings demonstrated that, after 28 days of curing, the soil pH of the stabilized samples with 5%, 10% and 15% metakaolin geopolymer increased by approximately 43.4%, 49.2% and 50.65%, respectively, in comparison with the soil containing 10,000 ppm of contaminants without stabilizer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although many commercial stabilizers are available for the treatment of poor soils; agricultural, agro-industrial, and environmentally friendly stabilizers are always encouraged. In this study, an attempt has been made to assess the effects of brewery spent grain ash (BSGA) on lime-treated clay for stabilization of an expansive clay to be used as road construction material. Brewery spent grain (BSG) is an agro-industrial solid waste product obtained during the brewing of beer. Through burning in an open cylinder, it is converted to BSGA. The clay was subjected to preliminary tests to classify and identify some required engineering properties of the sample. Initially, samples were thoroughly mixed with lime by weight of clay to determine the optimum amount of lime needed throughout the experiments. Through laboratory execution trials, 10% lime was determined to be the optimal amount. Following, BSGA was added to the treated clay, which was previously treated with 10% lime, at various percentages of 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10% BSGA by weight of clay. At 0% BSGA, the unsoaked and soaked California bearing ratio (CBR) rose from 13.56 and 8.24% to their greatest values of 14.99% and 9.3%, respectively, at 6% BSGA. Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) values rose from 112.63 kN/m2 at 0% BSGA to 130.31 kN/m2 at 6% BSGA, which is the highest value. Therefore, it was discovered that BSGA can be a beneficial addition to lime stabilization in clay soil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Contaminant soil remediation has potential engineering applications with various stabilization techniques addressing heavy metal contamination. Conventional soil stabilizers, however, have an environmental impact, promoting international research into environmentally friendly alternatives. Using waste byproducts to produce geopolymer binders as new green cementitious materials can provide an environmentally friendly and effective option for soil improvement. Silica-rich wastes have been advanced as a sustainable option for soil stabilization. The effectiveness of alkaline-activated silica-rich wastes in stabilizing cadmium-contaminated soil and its potential engineering utilization remain of profound significance, demanding sustained and rigorous research investigation. Cadmium was immobilized in silty clay soil by rich silica waste products—fly ash, silica fume, and rice husk ash—at various percentages with 4.5 and 6.5-molar alkaline activators. Unconfined compressive strength tests assessed soil behavior, while Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP), pH tests, X-ray diffraction, and scanning electron microscope analyses explained cadmium immobilization mechanisms. The experimental results revealed that alkali-activated silica-rich wastes enhanced strength and cementitious properties and reduced cadmium leaching in the contaminated silty clay. The Finite Element Method was also employed to analyze the bearing capacity of the stabilized contaminated soil. The numerical results support the experimental results and confirm increased soil strength and reduced compressibility, endorsing the efficacy of the stabilization techniques and environmental benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In civil engineering, some soils cause many problems in terms of geotechnical engineering. Especially high plasticity clayey soils cause serious problems in road, airport, pavement and highway construction. Such soils can be stabilized using the chemical stabilization method. Additives such as lime, cement, fly ash and blast furnace slag are generally used in chemical stabilization. In addition, in recent years, there have been many studies on the use of natural and artificial fibers in ground stabilization. In this study, the effects of basalt fiber and mineral additives on the microstructure of clay soil were examined. Microstructures of pure and additively mixed clayey soil specimens were investigated for this purpose. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses were performed on compacted soil specimens. In sum, it has been shown that the addition of lime, fly ash, and silica fume is effective in improving the compactivity properties. Pore sizes in SEM images vary depending on additive addition. SEM images showed that the soil particles adhered to the basalt fiber surface, which contributed to the force and friction between the soil particles and the basalt fiber. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Enhancing the dynamic properties of expansive soils using cementitious materials has attracted the attention of many researchers over the past few decades. Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) can be used as partial substitutes for cement owing to their pozzolanic activity that further improves the mechanical performance of cement-stabilized soils upon curing. In this study, the effect of cement and zeolite incorporation on the mechanical behavior of expansive clay was quantified using the pressure wave velocity (Vp) indicator obtained from ultrasonic pulse velocity tests performed at different curing times. Furthermore, a polynomial model was developed to establish the relationship between Vp and zeolite replacement levels at specific curing times and cement contents. The results show that a polynomial function captured the decreasing trend of Vp upon the increase in zeolite at curing times below 14 days. Additionally, the developed equation explained the upward trend of Vp owing to the pozzolanic activity of zeolite at later curing times with an accuracy of over 92%. The coefficients of the polynomial model also increased with the increment of the cement percentage which conformed to the consecutive rise in Vp. Ultimately, the polynomial coefficients were expressed in terms of cement content and curing time using the Volterra series. Using this model, the optimum percentage of cement replaced with zeolite (Zopt), the efficiency of using Zopt instead of cement, and the percentage of zeolite replacement to achieve equivalent Vp of cemented clay samples (ZC) were estimated. The findings of this study contribute to promoting geotechnical sustainability by replacing cement with zeolite that has a considerably lower environmental footprint. Clay is a type of soil that can be found in many construction projects. For instance, many roads and buildings' foundations are constructed on clay soils. To ensure the necessary strength of the clay under the main structure, the soil should often be stabilized using adhesive construction materials such as cement. Interestingly, a portion of the cement could be replaced with other minerals not only to improve engineering performance but also to promote sustainability by lowering cement consumption. In this study, the effect of zeolite as a partial replacement for cement on the strength of clay soils was experimentally evaluated. The effect of various design parameters, such as cement replacement level and curing time, on the stability of clays was investigated using an advanced technique called the ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test. Furthermore, a simple mathematical model was proposed based on the experimental results to help engineers design the stabilization plan and timely decide about the next steps of the construction process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soft clay soil is a concern in geotechnical engineering due to its low strength and high compressibility. Soil improvement with stabilization techniques is an interesting topic in the field of geotechnical engineering and pavements. Nanomaterials and biogeotechnicalbased soil improvement are in high demand, as is the case with the objective of this research which is to determine the effect of the addition of nano lime, nano silica, and chitosan biopolymers to soft clay soil on its mechanical properties. The ratio of additives in this study was taken based on previous research, namely 2% nano lime, 4% nano silica, and 0.1% chitosan biopolymer from shrimp shell waste. Specimen variations consist of initial soil, soil mixed with biopolymers, soil mixed with nanomaterials, and soil mixed with biopolymers and nanomaterials. The mixing method in this study was carried out by mixing the additives according to the percentage of the initial soil dry weight, then water was added to the mixture. Compaction and unconfined compression strength (UCS) tests were conducted on each specimen. The results show that mixing soil with nanomaterials and chitosan provides advantages in mechanical properties. This can be seen from the increase in the UCS value which is up to 11 times that of the initial soil and the increase in the maximum dry density value. Soil stabilization using nanomaterials and chitosan biopolymers has a good impact on the environment. Reducing the ratio of lime in soil stabilization on a project scale can reduce CO2 emissions during production and the use of chitosan biopolymer additives can reduce marine biota waste, especially invertebrates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The definition of soil stabilization is a method to enhance the engineering properties. Polyurethane grout is one of the least expensive methods and can be used in construction. Polyurethane injection resin systems for crack injection, slab lifting, soil stabilization, leak sealing, and structural crack repair have been used for the last two decades. Polyurethane foam hasn't been used or understood as a loaded structural element in soils like as embedded piles. In this piece of work, a trial was made to numerically study the behavior of polyurethane foam when used as piles embedded in the clay and sand soils. Plaxis 3D software was adopted to carry out this study. Polyurethane piles of varying diameters and lengths were modelled as embedments in the clay and sand soil, and then incremental loads were applied. Moreover, the study involved the behavior of polyurethane piles when the clay strength was increased. The results indicated that embedded pile resistance to loading increased with the increase in length and pile diameter. When the loading results of polyurethane foam embedded in loose sand are compared with the loading results of piles in soft clay, the ultimate capacity of piles in loose sand, was much higher than that in soft clay. The results also indicated that the polyurethane pile load-carrying capacity increased when L/D ratio decreased for both soft and stiff clay. In this study concrete piles in clay and sand soil were modelled to examine the percentage of loading capacity of concrete piles to that of polyurethane piles for clay and sand soil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This investigation examines the effect of clamshell ash (CSA) and lime additives on the physico-mechanical characteristics of kaolinite clay soil stabilized at the optimum silica fume content. Laboratory tests were performed to assess plasticity, shrink-swell characteristics, compaction characteristics, unconfined compressive strength (UCS), shear strength characteristics, mineralogical and morphological microstructure characteristics of stabilized soil specimens. The kaolinite clay soil was stabilized at its optimum silica fume content (6%) to produce the highest strength and was altered with three non-identical proportions of clamshell ash and lime (3%-9%). Cylindrical soil specimens, 76 mm in height and 38 mm in diameter, were moulded and treated for curing periods of 1, 7, 14, and 30 days to examine the strength of the altered soil. The findings revealed that, adding clamshell ash and lime significantly alters the plasticity, shrink-swell, maximum dry unit weights, and optimum moisture contents of the silica fume-stabilized soil. In terms of strength, the beneficial effects of CSA and lime additives were found to be more significant with more extended curing periods. Incremental increases in curing periods resulted in further enhancements in UCS, cohesion, and internal friction angle, indicating continued strength development over time. Microstructural analysis using field emission scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction provided insights into the interparticle bonding mechanisms and microstructural changes induced by the addition of CSA and lime. The emergence of cementitious phases and pozzolanic responses between soil particles and stabilizers contributed to the densification and strengthening of the stabilized soil matrix. The findings of this study provide valuable insights into the potential of clamshell ash and lime additives to enhance the engineering properties of kaolinite clay soil stabilized with silica fume. These results have implications for sustainable soil stabilization practices, offering a promising approach to improve the performance of soils for various engineering applications, including construction and geotechnical projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Construction of earth fill dams offers a cost-effective solution for various purposes. However, their susceptibility to internal soil erosion, known as piping, poses a significant risk of structural failure and resultant loss of life and property. Soil stabilization emerges as a practical technique to fortify these dams against such threats. This study investigated the impact of lime on the internal erosion properties of clay soils, focusing on CH and ML soil types. Specimens of different lime content were prepared and remolded at 95% relative compaction and optimum moisture content. Hole Erosion tests at varying lime concentrations and curing durations were adapted to conduct the investigation. This investigation aims to optimize lime content and curing time for cohesive soil stabilization against internal erosion. Findings revealed that 2% and 5% of quicklime, by dry weight of the soil, effectively stabilized CH and ML soils, respectively, against internal erosion, with a two-day curing period proving optimal. Furthermore, the addition of lime significantly enhanced erosion rate index and critical shear strength in clay soil, underscoring its efficacy in soil stabilization efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose. To study the effect of hardened cement waste and compare it to the effect of fresh cement in the treatment of expansive soil. Methodology. To show the performance of hardened cement waste compared to that of fresh cement, an experimental study is conducted concerning a swelling clay soil in the Mila region of eastern Algeria. The study involves a series of soil treatment tests with fresh cement and hardened cement waste (with reasonable proportion) for each type of cement. Finally, a comparison of the influence of the addition of hardened cement waste and the addition of fresh cement on the physical and mechanical behavior of the soil. Findings. Treatment with fresh cement provides a good improvement in certain properties, and in this work we show that the use of hardened cement waste could also improve the physical and mechanical characteristics of the treated soil. Originality. The originality of this work is to replace fresh cement with the waste of hardened cement in the treatment of clay soils in general and swelling soils in exceptional cases to minimize the cost of treatment with fresh cement and protect the environment from waste of the cement. Practical value. This study shows that the results obtained by adding 6 % of fresh cement and 6 % of hardened cement waste changed the physical and mechanical properties of the soil (plasticity, bearing capacity, swelling and settlement). Comparison of the results obtained shows that the performance of hardened cement waste represents 90 to 98 % of the performance of fresh cement. The convergence of the treatment results indicates the possibility of replacing fresh cement with hardened waste cement in soil stabilization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study presents a comprehensive examination of the effects of quicklime (QL) addition on the stabilization of two distinct clayey soils with high (CH) and low plasticity (CL-tuff). The results showed that incorporating QL into the soils substantially improves their stabilization characteristics. Specifically, the addition of QL results in a notable decrease in the final water content of both soils, as shown by a reduction from 23.04 to 19.06% in CH and from 18.07 to 17.1% in CL-tuff at 4% QL addition. Furthermore, this study reveals a transformation in the plasticity properties of soils. Liquid Limit (LL) and Plasticity Index (PI) were reduced, with CH-tuff exhibiting a significant decrease in PI from 48 to 12 and an increase in Plastic Limit (PL) from 21.8 to 55 at 4% QL. CL-tuff also showed reduced plasticity, with PI decreasing to 8.33 at 4% QL. Additionally, the Immediate Bearing Index (IBI) was improved for both soil samples, indicating improved load-bearing capacities. For CH samples, IBI improved from 6.37 to 11.99 at 4% QL addition, while for CL-tuff, it increased dramatically from 4.5 to 23.6 for the same QL percentage. The findings underscore the effectiveness of QL in improving soil properties crucial for chemical stabilization, providing evidence that QL addition can be a key technique in soil stabilization, especially for soils with high plasticity or those requiring increased bearing strength. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The technique of mass soil stabilization using alternative binders to Portland cement (PC) has been used successfully in the past. However, knowledge gaps exist regarding the design of these binders. Ground-granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) has been widely used as a substitute for PC; however, it requires an alkaline activator (e.g. lime and PC) to promote pozzolanic reaction and strength enhancement. A candidate that presents a less energy-intensive manufacturing and carbon footprint is carbide lime (CL), a by-product of acetylene gas production, rich in Ca(OH)2. The main problem with the pozzolanic binder in the stabilization technique is its slow reaction kinetics and the long time required for laboratory-scale investigations before in situ application. Therefore, this research presents a dosing study of a ternary binder (TB) comprising CL, GGBS and PC type III (CEM-III) to mass-stabilize a clayey organic soil using thermal curing as an innovative technique to improve the feasibility of laboratory-scale investigations. The effects of binder composition and thermal curing time on the evolution of strength, stiffness, mineralogy, and microstructure were determined. The results, supported by a statistical analysis (ANOVA) and by a multivariate regression analysis (MRA), have shown that the new TB produced a superior mechanical response to soil samples stabilized exclusively with CEM-III. This was evidenced by a less porous microstructure (more reaction products) and mainly the formation of a C–A–S–H gel, as a product of CEM-III hydration and alkaline activation of GGBS (blended cement), whereby the CL content played a key role for the development of the long-term pozzolanic reaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the stabilization performance of clayey soil treated with alkali-activated hybrid slag/cement. Sodium silicate (SS) and sodium hydroxide (SH) are used as alkali activators, whereas ground blast furnace slag (GGBS) and ordinary Portland cement (OPC) are used as sources of aluminosilicate. A total of 27 different types of mixtures are used for stabilization. Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of untreated clay and stabilized soils are performed at immediately, 3-, 7-, 28-, and 90 days curing times under air-dried and wet-cured conditions. In addition, 90-d volume and mass changes in the samples are measured. Stabilized samples with an SS/SH ratio of 1 under air-dried conditions reveal moistening at early curing ages (=28 days); afterward, sodium carbonate crystals appear in these samples at longer curing ages. Geopolymer-treated clayey soil exhibits lower volumetric and mass changes compared with OPC. Most of the stabilized clayey soil with alkali-activated hybrid slag/cement exhibits higher strength compared with OPC under air-dried and wet-cured conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Expansive clayey soils (CSs) expand and become softer as moisture content increases, but they get harder and stronger as they dry out. The earth's swelling and shrinkage characteristics under varying moisture conditions make roads built on expansive CS, in particular, vulnerable to early degradation. In this investigation, coffee husk ash (CHA), gypsum, and a blend of the two additives (G-CHA) were used in experimental tests to treat expansive CS. This study aims to evaluate experimentally the potential of expansive soil stabilization using different additives: CHA, gypsum, and a combination of gypsum and CHA. Five different percentages of CHA (5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25%), three percentages of gypsum (3%, 6%, and 9%), and variable percentages of their combinations were used to stabilize the soil for pavement subgrade application. Atterberg limits, compaction, linear shrinkage (LS), swelling, unconfined compressive strength (UCS), and California bearing ratio (CBR) tests were performed on treated and virgin soil specimens at 3, 7, 14, 28, and 56-day curing times. Results showed that CHA additives effectively reduced the plasticity, LS, and swell potential in addition to increasing the maximum dry unit weight, UCS, and CBR. It was determined that the UCS and CBR values for the 6% stabilized gypsum soil increased by 28.95% and 19.54%, respectively, and reduced by 41% of the plastic index parameter after the addition of 15% CHA. Based on the evaluation of the results, an optimum mixture of 6% gypsum and 15% CHA (SG6C15) stabilized soil can be used in pavement subgrade applications as it achieved the minimum strength target. The performance of CHA-treated samples as subgrade material is superior to that of untreated virgin soil. Because of the stronger subgrade, smaller pavement layers result in a thinner pavement structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Civil engineering faces a substantial challenge when dealing with soft and compressible clayey soils. Conventional soil stabilization techniques involving ordinary Portland cement (OPC) result in notable CO2 emissions. This study explores the utilization of basic oxygen furnace (BOF) slag, a by-product of steel production, for strengthening kaolin clay. This research investigates the influence of BOF slag particle size, BOF slag content, and the use of activators such as lime and ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS) on the stabilization of kaolin clay. The strength development is assessed through unconfined compressive strength (UCS) test, bender element (BE) test, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The findings reveal that higher BOF content and extended curing periods enhance soil strength, and lime and GGBFS effectively augment the stabilizing properties of BOF slag. Stabilizing kaolin clay with a 30% BOF/GGBFS mixture in a 50/50 ratio with 1% lime and curing for 7 days yielded a compressive strength of 753 kPa, meeting the Federal Highway Administration's requirement for lime-treated soil. These combined measures contribute to developing a more robust and stable material with enhanced geotechnical properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of lime in sulfate-bearing clayey soils has historically caused structural damage to infrastructures due to the formation of an expansive ettringite mineral. In this paper, a research was conducted to study the effectiveness of natural pozzolana (NP) for providing better stabilization of sulfate-bearing soils. Compaction and free-swell potential tests were first performed on lime-stabilized grey and red clayey soils (GS and RS) containing different contents of added sodium and calcium sulfates (2, 4 and 6% Na2SO4 or CaSO4⋅2H2O). Then, the same tests were repeated by adding 20%NP. The test results indicated that the presence of 4% and 6% Na2SO4 in the soil resulted in an abnormal increase in the swell potential of both lime-stabilized GS and RS. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) results confirmed the growth of the ettringite mineral responsible for this higher swell potential. However, the use of 8% lime with 20%NP in stabilizing sulfate-bearing clayey soils produced significant improvements in the optimum moisture content (OMC) and maximum dry density (MDD), as well as in the swell potential. The addition of 20%NP into the lime-stabilized GS and RS eliminated the harmful effect of Na2SO4. In addition, for 120-day curing period, the use of 6% CaSO4⋅2H2O was found very effective by reducing the swell potential of NP-lime-stabilized GS and RS from 7.33% to 0.4% and from 2.79% to 0.2%, respectively trips. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the performance of ladle furnace slag (LFS), a by-product of secondary steel refining, is evaluated as a binder to stabilize clayey soils of low bearing capacity. The aim is to define whether additions of this by-product to clayey soil can stabilize the soil in accordance with the technical specifications of Spanish standards. To do so, three different soils stabilized with 5% LFS were compared with the same soils stabilized with 2% lime and with no stabilization, in order to investigate their different behaviors. The chemical and mineralogical characterizations of all the soil mixes were conducted using X-ray fluorescence, X-ray diffraction, and scanning electron microscopy. The Atterberg limit test was used to study the plastic behavior of the soils, and the results of compaction, bearing capacity, unconfined compressive strength, and direct shear strength (cohesion and friction angle) tests defined their strength characteristics. The analysis was completed with the pH monitoring of the mixes along the curing time in order to relate the pH changes with the strength evolution. The addition of LFS to the soils has resulted in an increase in the liquid limit and plastic limit, causing therefore a slight decrease in the plasticity index. All the soils showed increases between 30% and 70% in their California Bearing Ratios immediately after mixing with 5% LFS, and after 90 days of curing, improvements of 30–188% in their unconfined compressive strength were noted in comparison with untreated soil, which were higher than the lime-stabilized soils. The cohesion of soils stabilized with LFS at 28 days of curing obtained improvements ranging from 40 to 300% depending on the type of soil. However, the friction angle showed a slight increase of 10% in two of the soils and zero in another. The high initial pH in LFS-stabilized soils was maintained during the curing time, which favored the development of pozzolanic reactions that improve the soil strength. These results confirmed that the substitution of lime with LFS is a feasible option for soil stabilization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil stabilization is a critical step in numerous engineering projects, preventing soil erosion, increasing soil strength, and reducing the risk of subsidence. Due to its inexpensive cost and potential environmental benefits, waste materials, such as waste marble powder (WMP), have been used as additives for soil stabilization in recent years. This study investigates waste marble powder's effects on unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and clayey soil's ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) at different water contents and curing times, and artificial neural networks (ANNs) are also used to predict the UCS and UPV values based on three input variables (percentage of waste marble dust, curing time, and moisture content). Geo-engineering experiments (Atterberg limits, compaction characteristics, specific gravity, UCS, and UPV) and analytical methods (ANNs) are used. The study results indicate that the soil is high-plasticity clay (CH) using the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS), and adding waste marble powder (WMP) can significantly improve the UCS and UPV of clay soils, especially at optimal water content, curing times of 28 days, and 60% WMP. It is found that the ANN models accurately predict the UCS and UPV values with high correlation coefficients approaching 1. In addition, this study shows that the optimum water content and curing time for stabilized clay soils depend on the grade and amount of waste marble powder utilized. Overall, the study demonstrates the potential of waste marble dust as a soil stabilization additive and the usefulness of ANNs in predicting UCS and UPV values. This study's results are relevant to engineers and researchers working on soil stabilization projects, such as foundations and backfills. They can contribute to the development of sustainable and cost-effective soil stabilization solutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New ways to apply sustainable materials, such as biomass components, are essential for reducing dependence on fossil fuels. This work investigated the engineering properties of unsaturated expansive subgrade soils stabilized by bio-based energy coproducts containing lignin. Lignin is a waste by-product of the paper and pulp industry that is frequently burned. Highway subgrade could consume lignin as an environmentally benign, low-cost, and energy-efficient chemical substance for soil stabilization. Swell and shrink behavior of expansive subgrade soils complicates highway construction and causes damage to existing highways. However, research on the hydromechanical properties and volume change behavior of lignin-stabilized expansive soil is limited, and better insight is required into its unsaturated behavior for safe and economical pavement design practices. In this research, a series of geotechnical laboratory tests were conducted to characterize expansive subgrade soils treated with lignin by determining the Atterberg limits, compaction and consolidation behaviors, swelling characteristics, and water retention properties. The mechanisms influencing the changes in engineering properties of lignin-treated expansive soils were further investigated using soil pH, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis. The study shows that the optimal lignin content contributed to an acceptable degree of soil stabilization. The lignin-based cementing material effectively bonds soil particles together and fills pores, thereby preventing water infiltration into the soil and reducing the swell–shrink potential of stabilized soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an analysis of the stabilization of different soil types using a hydraulic binder. A study was carried out on soils that can be classified into two groups: cohesive and non-cohesive soils. Clay soils of medium and low plasticity according to the USCS classification were used as cohesive materials, while the sandy material containing dust was considered as non-cohesive material. Samples were taken from fifteen locations in Vojvodina province, Serbia. A hydraulic binder was used as a binder based on cement and lime. The amounts of the binder were estimated at 3, 5, 7, and 9%. In order to determine the basic physical and mechanical characteristics of the specimens, the following tests were performed: unconfined compressive strength after 7 and 28 days, indirect tensile strength after 7 and 28 days, as well as the California Bearing Ratio. Based on the obtained results, it can be concluded that increasing the amount of binder results in an increase in the subgrade load-bearing capacity. However, it should be emphasized that the subgrade containing non-cohesive material had a lower growth in the load-bearing capacity than those with the cohesive material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Expansive soils contain water-absorbing clay minerals, including smectite and montmorillonite. So expansive soil undergoes a process of expanding and shrinking. Changes in expanding and contracting can weaken structures built on expansive soils. One effort to overcome the problem of expansive soils is a chemical stabilization process using lapindo deposits. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of stabilizing expansive soils using lapindo sediment materials. Using physical and mechanical testing before and after the expansive soil stabilization process. Using a mixture of 0%, 5%, 10%, 15% & 20% between expansive soil and stabilizing agent. The results showed that the plasticity index decreased from 37.8% to 15.3%, and the compressive strength increased from 0.30 kg/cm² to 0.90 kg/cm² with the addition of 20% sediment material lapindo. The physical and mechanical properties of expansive soils can be increased by stabilizing them with lapindo sediments. These modifications can reduce the soil's expanding potential, increase its weight, and give it clay-like qualities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Expansive soils are extremely susceptible to swelling and shrinkage associated with seasonal changes in their moisture content. This can cause serious damage to structures constructed on expansive soils. Stabilization using additives is widely used to mitigate the concerns of expansive soils by controlling the changes in volume, thereby increasing the strength and durability of the soils. Multistabilizers, including a low percentage of conventional additives with nonconventional additives, can reduce the costs of stabilization. The performance of the stabilized soil can be enhanced by admixture optimization to ascertain that the agent's ratios are quite adequate to meet the optimal levels of modification. Unfortunately, despite the development of advanced techniques for investigating the stabilization of expansive soil, limited studies are devoted to the optimization of admixture to soils. Hence, in this research, an approach based on rough set theory, a mathematical data mining approach, is presented for multiagent optimization for efficient treatment of expansive soils. The multiadditives used in this study are almond shell ash (ASA), volcanic rock dust (VRD), and portland cement (PC). The differential free swell test, the California bearing ratio test, and the unconfined compressive strength test were applied for assessing the characteristics of the stabilized soil specimens. The obtained results and the confirmatory tests demonstrated that a combination of 20% ASA and 20% VRD with 8% PC provides the optimum results in the properties of expansive soil. The microstructural analysis denoted an enhanced modification of the soil engineering properties. The outcomes of this research confirm that the rough set optimization procedure is highly suitable for application in multiagent optimization for the efficient treatment of expansive soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fine-grained soils cause problems for forest road construction and often require improvements of their mechanical properties. One of the methods of improving mechanical properties of clay soils is soil stabilization. In this study, the effect of a conventional (lime) and a non-conventional (sodium nanoalginate) stabilizer on improving the characteristics of a high plasticity forest soil was compared. Atterberg limits including liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index, standard Proctor, UCS (Unconfined Compression Strength) and CBR (California Bearing Ratio) tests were performed on control (untreated) and soil samples treated with different doses (3%, 5% and 7%) of lime and sodium nanoalginate, according to the standard procedures. Moreover, to evaluate the effect of curing time, additional tests were performed on the soil samples treated with 3% lime and 3% sodium nanoalginate at 7, 14 and 28 days after the treatment. The results indicated that adding sodium nanoalginate and lime to the forest soil improves the Atterberg limits. Additionally, adding sodium nanoalginate to the forest soil increases the maximum dry density (γdmax) and decreases the optimum moisture content (OMC), whereas adding lime to the forest soil reduces the maximum dry density and increases the optimum moisture content. Adding sodium nanoalginate and lime in different doses (3%, 5% and 7%) increased UCS and CBR as the main indices of soil strength. The increment range of UCS for the soil stabilized with sodium nanoalginate and lime was 42.59%–160.14% and 31.34%–56.65%, respectively, and the range of CBR improvement for soil stabilized with sodium nanoalginate and lime was 28.72%–122.97% and 13.83%–45.59%, respectively. Increasing the curing time improved the mechanical properties of the forest soil in the samples treated with both stabilizers, but sodium nanoalginate performed better in soil stabilization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stabilization of cohesive soils has been practiced for some time by mixing additives, such as cement, lime, and fly ash, into the soil to increase its mechanical strength. However, there is a lack of investigation on the use of natural pozzolana (NP) alone or combined with lime for soil stabilization applications. This work is a part of a research project focused on the evaluation of the effects of adding natural pozzolana as an additive to improve the lime treatment results of local clayey soils. The main purpose of this paper is to present the results of using lime, natural pozzolana, and their combination on shear strength, shear parameters, and failure mode variations of the local clayey soil, classified as fat clay (CH). CH, selected from Tlemcen city in Algeria, is known for its high plasticity and importance in cohesion and compressibility. To achieve this goal, several physicomechanical tests (pH, compaction, undrained unconsolidated triaxial compression test) and microstructural analysis, scanning electron microscope (SEM) have been carried out for the different studied combinations. Natural pozzolana and lime were added to the studied soils at ranges of 0–20% and 0–6%, respectively. The treated samples were cured for 1, 7, and 28 days. The results indicated that the studied properties of clay soil can be considerably improved when treated with lime. The combination of lime and natural pozzolana appears to produce higher shear strength parameters, than when lime or natural pozzolana is used alone. Adding natural pozzolana to clay soil treated with lime produces an additional chemical reaction, especially in the long term, resulting in better flocculation and additional formation of cementing materials. Therefore, the deviatoric stress of the treated soil, with 6% lime and 20% NP, increased up to 200% within 28 days of curing. The treated soil became more brittle, with a significant increase in shear strength, cohesion, and a higher friction angle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geotechnical engineers seek to improve the engineering performance of soil-cement mixtures by adding non-traditional materials as a supplementary additive. Emulsion polymers are widely used to develop cementitious composites by forming physical bonds. The aim of this study is to estimate the feasibility of utilizing Styrene Butadiene Latex (SBL) to increase the soil-cement mixtures strength. This study involved two parts. In the first one, the Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) tests were carried out on sandy soil blended with 8% cement and 0, 5, 7.5, and 10% SBL after 7 and 28 days of curing. The results of the UCS tests verified that the mixtures of sandy soil with 8% cement and 7.5% SBL were increased by 3% and 5% compared to soil - 8% cement after 7 and 28 curing days, respectively. In the second part of the study, Plaxis 3D software was used to evaluate the settlement of the raft foundation constructed above soil mixed columns (SMCs) using only 8% cement and 8% cement plus 7.5% SBL. The SMCs were designed under various compositions, lengths and floating or end bearing conditions depending on the location of rigid layer. The influence of adding 7.5% SBL to the composition of SMCs on the vertical stress was pragmatically increased by 5% and 4% when the SMCs were rested on a rigid layer at 5 and 10 m, respectively. The implications of the finding in design are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The low bearing capacity of expansive soils often results in serviceability issues and premature failures of infrastructure built upon them. Various studies have demonstrated the use of different soil treatment methods using mechanical or chemical approaches to stabilize the weak ground as a precaution. Most of the reported studies are limited to either lab-based investigations or field monitoring works without the scientific connection between theory and translation. This study aims to verify the field application of a novel soil stabilization method by conducting laboratory-controlled experiments and field performance testing as verification. Enzyme–based soil stabilization was adopted for in-situ clay soil in combination with ordinary portland cement as a sustainable stabilization approach. Soil samples were collected at different regions from the field to evaluate the effectiveness and the mechanism of soil stabilization in the field by the means of replicating stabilization at the laboratory scale using identical mixing proportions of the additives. The mechanical behavior of stabilized soil was assessed through the unconfined compression strength and California bearing ratio test methods. In addition, the changes in the chemical composition of the soil due to the additives were evaluated through the X-ray diffraction testing technique and microporosity test using 2D images translated to 3D profiles from X-ray micro CT tomography. The efficacy of field stabilization was evaluated by conducting the falling weight deflectometer test in the stabilized site. Results from the study are useful to understand the efficacy of field soil stabilization and enhance the reliability of enzyme–based stabilization in practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present work aims to evaluate expansive soil stabilization using different additives. Twenty soil mixtures consisting of 10%, 20%, 25%, and 30% zeolitic tuff (ZT) with 2%, 4%, and 6% lime in various combinations were used to stabilize the soil for pavement subbase application. A comprehensive test program, including Atterberg's limits, compaction, unconfined compression strength (UCS), California Bearing Ratio (CBR), resilient modulus, and permanent deformation, was performed on natural and stabilized soil specimens. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) supplied with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDX) was used to confirm the study findings. Adding ZT increases the availability of the silica and alumina needed for the pozzolanic reaction; test results revealed that adding ZT increases the maximum dry unit weight, CBR, UCS, resilient modulus, decreases plasticity, and permanent deformation. As such, ZT can improve the physical and mechanical properties of lime-stabilized soil as a pavement's subgrade and subbase layers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research evaluates the changes brought about by the addition of asphalt emulsion and steel filings in clayey soils for subgrade in urban pavements. For this study, different dosages of each additive were established, being 1%, 2%, 4%, 8%, and 15% for the steel filings and 3%, 6%, 9%, 13%, and 18% for the asphalt emulsion, obtaining favorable results in the subgrade in accordance with the CE.010 Urban Pavement standard. With the steel filings the CBR (California Bearing Ratio) had a linear increase whose maximum value was reached with the dosage of 15% increasing the CBR considerably by 189.47% above the CBR of the natural soil; on the other hand, with the asphalt emulsion a maximum increase in CBR was obtained with the dosage of 13% obtaining an increase of 236.84% and after that a decrease is observed with the addition of 18% of asphalt emulsion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soft clay soils are in many coastal areas, these soils generally have high compressibility and don't provide required bearing capacity. Various techniques are used to improve these soils. The stone column technique has been successfully applied for the ground improvement. A stone columns technique is one of the soil stabilization methods that is used to increase strength, decrease the compressibility of soft and loose fine graded soils, accelerate a consolidation effect, and reduce the liquefaction potential of soils. They are mainly used for stabilization soft soil such as soft clays, silts, and silty sand. Several research has been conducted on the behavior and performance of stone columns with various materials utilized as column filler replacing the normal aggregate. This paper will review extensively on previously conducted research on some of the materials used as stone column backfill materials, its suitability, and the effectiveness as a substitute for regular aggregates in soft soil improvement works. This paper also discusses the techniques and methods of construction of stone columns. The bearing capacity of stone columns, and a combination of both methods in reinforced and unreinforced modes are presented using scaled physical models. The effect of various diameters with various depths in ground also reviewed. Results show that using stone column improves bearing capacity of soft soils and decreasing settlement. Using geotextile as stonecolumn encasement increases the efficiency of stone columns significantly. Finally, some guidance and recommendations are provided on parameter selection for the study of stone columns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main thrust of this research was to establish any benefits of mellowing, and the optimal moisture content (OMC) for compacting mellowed sulphate-bearing clay soil undergoing the stabilization process. Two three-day mellowing regimes were carried out, prior to final compaction, at different initial moisture contents of 30% or 40% OMC. The unmellowed specimens were compacted immediately after mixing with the blended stabilizers. A blend of quicklime (L) with a sustainable by-product, silica fume (SF), at a 1:1 ratio (2%L–2%SF) was used. Linear expansion and unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests were carried out to evaluate the benefits of mellowing. The test results suggested that the mellowed test specimens achieved better UCS and swelling properties compared to the unmellowed specimens. Mellowing at 1.2 OMC produced better strength performance than at 1.4 OMC, whereas mellowed specimens at 1.4 OMC showed better resistance to linear expansion compared to 1.2 OMC. The research findings suggested that optimal performance was achieved by mellowing at the higher initial moisture condition of 40% OMC and compacting the materials at the lower moisture condition of 1.2 OMC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the different geotechnical characteristics of soil stabilization with the addition of lime and rice husk ash (RHA) in varying amounts (3%, 5%, 7%, and 9% lime, and 4%, 8%, 12%, and 16% RHA). A series of compaction, unconfined compressive strength (UCS), California bearing ratio (CBR), pH, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) tests were performed in the laboratory to assess the impact of the considered admixtures on the stabilized soil parameters. This study also proposes the successful integration of an artificial neural network (ANN) and a Gaussian process regression (GPR) with the experimental UCS observations. The lime concentration, RHA concentration, and curing period were considered as the input parameters, and UCS was considered as the response. The proposed framework was extended to analyze the compressive behavior of treated soil on the minuscule level. Such coupled machine learning-based experimental investigation can provide deep insight into the soil behavior which otherwise would have remained unexplored due to the prohibitive nature of performing laboratory experiments on a large scale. The findings demonstrated the effectiveness of RHA in addition to lime in stabilizing the considered expansive soil. With the addition of lime and RHA mix, the UCS and CBR values of the treated soil increased significantly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Singapore has a relatively high water table. When liquefied natural gas (LNG) storage systems are built in soils below the water table in Singapore, the engineering properties of the surrounding soils could be improved through cement stabilization. Due to the extremely low temperature (T) of LNG (approximately −162°C), the effect of ultralow T on the physical and mechanical properties of cement-stabilized soil in case of accidental LNG leakage should be investigated. However, existing studies on cement-stabilized soils are limited to T above −20°C. Therefore, in this study laboratory experiments to quantify volumetric expansion, unconfined compressive strength (UCS), and Young's modulus (E) of cement-stabilized soils at −40°C, −80°C, and −120°C were conducted. The experimental results indicated that the stabilized soils' volumetric expansion reached ≤2.6% at −120°C. The UCS and E of the stabilized soils increased from 0.9 to 27.6 MPa and from 99.8 to 2,669 MPa, respectively, and the T decreased from 24°C to −120°C. In summary, the ultralow T induced limited volumetric expansion (<3%) for cement-stabilized soil and significantly increased its strength and E, which indicated that cement soil stabilization could be beneficial for underground LNG storage systems in Singapore when exposed to accidental LNG leakage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil parent material can strongly influence soil's physical and chemical properties, significantly affecting soil organic carbon (SOC) stabilization. However, the importance of different soil parent materials on the amount and composition of subsoil carbon in subtropical soils remains poorly qualified. Subsoil SOC (below A horizon) is chosen for this study because of its higher proportion of stable carbon than surface soils in A horizon. Here, we investigated the dependence of soil mineral‐associated organic carbon (MAOC) and its three mineral‐stabilized fractions on soil physical and chemical parameters (clay content, cation exchange capacity (CEC) and metal oxides) in the subsoil soil (B and C horizons) originating from three contrasting parent materials (sandshale, granite, limestone). The results showed that MAOC accounts for an average of 88% of total SOC, of which organo‐metal complexes (extracted with sodium pyrophosphate) are the dominant form at all three sites. MAOC and its three fractions were significantly correlated with soil clay, CEC, sodium pyrophosphate extractable Fe and oxalate extractable Fe concentrations (P < 0.05), which varied significantly with soil parent material. Since the sodium pyrophosphate plus oxalate‐ extracted mineral‐associated carbon accounted for more than 70% of MAOC, and the molar ratio between sodium pyrophosphate or oxalate‐ extracted mineral‐associated carbon and Fe (C:Fe) ranged from 2.7 to 17.1. The formation of Fe‐associated organic complex is dominated by co‐precipitation when C:Fe is >1. Therefore we conclude that non‐sorptive interactions with the mineral phase through co‐precipitation are the dominant mechanism for SOC stabilization in subtropical forest soils. Plain Language Summary: Identifying the mechanisms for the accumulation and stabilization of forest soil organic carbon (SOC) is particularly important for increasing land‐based carbon mitigation as a part of the solution toward carbon neutrality by 2060 in China. However, our understanding of the mechanism of SOC stabilization is still limited, particularly how soil carbon stabilization is influenced by soil parent material, which has been shown to have strong influences on soil's physical and chemical properties, therefore on SOC stabilization. By analyzing the carbon content and composition of the soils developed from the different parent materials, we showed that soil parent material indirectly affected SOC through soil physical and chemical properties, of which soil clay content, CEC and soil Fe oxides played an important role in SOC stabilization. Both sorptive and co‐precipitation interactions between Fe and SOC contributed to SOC stabilization in subtropical forest soil with co‐precipitation as the dominant mechanism. Key Points: Mineral‐associated organic carbon accounts for >80% of soil organic carbon (SOC) in southern China forest soilsCo‐precipitation with Fe is the dominant SOC stabilization mechanismParent material is a significant contributor to the observed SOC variations [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil properties are critical in building and road construction, which often causes problems, particularly for clay-type soil. The poor condition of clay soil is indicated by its high plasticity, low shear strength, high volume changes, and high shrinking properties. In the current work, marble waste powder (MWP) was used as an additive to stabilize the soil. The investigation aims to study the effect of the weight percentage of MWP addition and to cure time on the soil stabilization properties. Soil samples were taken from Jalan Masjid Priyayi, Kasemen, and Serang. Variations of marble powder waste were 0, 7, 17, and 27%-wt with a curing time of 0, 7, 14, and 28 days. The soil tests were performed for sieve analysis, soil density, moisture content, Atterberg (liquid limit), soil compaction, and unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests. The study results found that the soil was categorized as OH-type organic clay with high plasticity according to the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) classification. The plasticity index value decreased with the increase in the content of MWP. The effect of curing time is highly influential in increasing the UCS value. The longer the curing time, the higher the UCS value. The highest UCS value obtained after adding 7% MWP with 28 days of curing was 3.427 kg/cm² from only 0.749 kg/cm² in the clay soil before mixing with MWP. The addition of low-cost MWP effectively improves clay soil stabilization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The utilization of fly ash (FA) and powdered granulated steel slag (PGSS) as additives in soil stabilization plays a crucial role in environmental, economic, and weak soil property improving advantages. In this study, the combined effect of FA and PGSS in improving expansive subgrade soil was investigated. The materials used for this study were expansive soils, FA, and PGSS. The study has applied an experimental research method. For this investigation, the index properties, Free Swell Index (FSI), unconfined compressive strength (UCS), optimum moisture content (OMC), California bearing ratio (CBR), and scanning electron microscope (SEM) tests were done for treated and untreated expansive soils. The findings indicated that as the mixture of FA (0 to 12.5% at 5% increment) and PGSS (0 to 25% at 5% at 2.5% increment) is added to the untreated expansive soils, the index properties, FSI, and OMC of the soils were significantly declined. The CBR values of expansive soils containing 20% FA and 10% PGSS mixture were 13.8% and 16.21%, respectively, which improved the quality of the soils by 85.43% and 84.82%, respectively. While the untreated expansive soils have a UCS value of 0.34 kg/cm2, the treated soil comprising 20% FA and 10% PGSS mixture has a UCS value of 13.42 kg/cm2, indicating that the soil strength is enhanced by 97.47%. The results of the studies demonstrate that adding FA and PGSS to expansive soil improves its stability and strength. The study concluded that disposals such as FA and PGSS might be effectively used in enhancing the characteristics of construction materials and used for the construction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]