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This paper explores some examples of Indigenous philosophies from North America. It considers Navajo philosophy as presented by James McNeley and John Farella, Mabel McKay's Pomo Indian insights as presented by her student Gary Sarris, and spiritual insights into Indigenous education. These nondualistic philosophies describe the universe relationally, seeking to dissolve sharp distinctions and dualisms, emphasizing instead how the universe and individuals are connected, spiritually and materially. Indigenous knowing relies on a unifying logic that describes the universe as whole, as well as holy. This concept of w/holistic relationality is discussed in terms of Indigenous descriptions of Spirit, Dreams, and Holy Wind. A relational epistemology is supported by a relational ontology, the unifying spiritual belief that we are one with the universe. This relational ontology needs to be foregrounded as a conscious part of the curriculum, so its influence can be carefully considered and critiqued. Examples demonstrate how Native spiritual beliefs that reflect a relational ontology and epistemology can be translated into daily classroom practices and become an explicit part of the curriculum. (Contains references in notes.) (SV)

Traditionally, philosophers have viewed critical thinking as a reasoning tool for guiding and helping people arrive at truth and certainty. Recent feminist theory suggests that critical thinking involves not just doubt but also believing. This paper examines: (1) the traditional views of critical thinking (methodological doubt); and (2) historical views of methdological believing. The paper discusses Peter Elbow's "Methodological Doubting and Believing: Contraries in Inquiry" (Embracing Contraries, 1986) and Belenky et al's procedural knowing (Women's Way of Knowing, 1986). Postmodernists such as Rorty seriously question whether it is possible to arrive at truth or certainty. This analysis suggests it is possible to arrive at trustworthy knowledge through the use of consensus and judgment. It is possible to reach consensus and judgment once there is communication and understanding. Communication and understanding can only occur when an individual has attempted to believe an idea or thought with care and honesty. Once a person has been fair to an idea, then it is possible to use critical thinking (doubting) to help make a judgment about the quality of the idea. Believing alone leads to naive thinking and indoctrination. Doubting alone leads to closemindedness and loss of creativity. Together, they lead to constructive thinking which integrates the inner voice and the voice of reason. (SM)