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There are over 80 countries in the world that currently use some kind of energy label for electric household appliances. In Europe, as an example, a lot of appliances are obliged to have an energy label when shown for sale, including online. Energy labels give relevant information to the consumers to help them make an environmentally beneficial choice when buying a new appliance. However, the desire for an energy efficient appliance does not outweigh the wish for good performance. Therefore, some energy labels provide information about the performance of the appliance based on international performance measurement standards (hereafter: "international standards"). Indeed, within the one appliance, increased performance can often mean increased energy consumption, so a balance between these parameters needs to be made by product designers and users. Unlike measurements that are traceable to Systeme Internationale units through metrological traceability chains, there is no natural reference data for performance measurements. Therefore, some international standards use a reference machine to relate their testing results to. The comparison of test and reference machine eliminates variances, for example, due to the auxiliary materials used and the influence of manual preparation or assessment methods. Three international standards that are currently using reference machines are examined closely in this paper. It is assessed how the reference machines and their testing results are treated, whether the reference machines are comparable with their corresponding test machines and if the use of a reference machine can be considered beneficial for the testing procedure. Additionally, three key questions are developed that will indicate whether 13 other international standards for electric household appliances could also benefit from using a reference machine. The paper concludes with six recommendations for standardisation groups and energy policymakers that will help with deciding whether a reference machine should be implemented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This data article relates to the paper "Review of the cost-optimal methodology implementation in Member States in compliance with the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive". Datasets linked with this article refer to the analysis of the latest national cost-optimal reports, providing an assessment of the implementation of the cost-optimal methodology, as established by the Energy Performance of Building Directive (EPBD). Based on latest national reports, the data provided a comprehensive update to the cost-optimal methodology implementation throughout Europe, which is currently lacking harmonization. Datasets allow an overall overview of the status of the cost-optimal methodology implementation in Europe with details on the calculations carried out (e.g., multi-stage, dynamic, macroeconomic, and financial perspectives, included energy uses, and full-cost approach). Data relate to the implemented methodology, reference buildings, assessed cost-optimal levels, energy performance, costs, and sensitivity analysis. Data also provide insight into energy consumption, efficiency measures for residential and non-residential buildings, nearly zero energy buildings (NZEBs) levels, and global costs. The reported data can be useful to quantify the cost-optimal levels for different building types, both residential (average cost-optimal level 80 kWh/m2y for new, 130 kWh/m2y for existing buildings) and non-residential buildings (140 kWh/m2y for new, 180 kWh/m2y for existing buildings). Data outline weak and strong points of the methodology, as well as future developments in the light of the methodology revision foreseen in 2026. The data support energy efficiency and energy policies related to buildings toward the EU building stock decarbonization goal within 2050. Datasets: Data directly related to this article are provided in the Supplementary Materials. Dataset License: CC-BY 4.0. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The implementation of new energy policies and standards for NZEB is expected to lead to a significant reduction of GHG emissions from building use in Europe in the next decades. On the other side, the growing pressure on insulation materials risks to significantly contribute to the exhaustion of the remaining carbon budget due to the high carbon intensity of conventional insulation for material processing. Consequently, storing carbon in construction products and promoting circular economies able to generate up-cycling processes from industrial or post-consumption waste are the key strategies to promote an effective transition toward a carbon-neutral society. Fashion & clothing is one of the manufacturing sectors which mostly contributes to waste generation and fossil GHG emission. This paper presents the main outcomes achieved from RECYdress project, which focuses on the valorisation of wasted textile collected by municipal districts to develop novel thermal insulations for building applications. Three alternative conceptual manufacturing processes were defined at lab scale based on different treatment of textile fibres, with produced specimens tested for thermal characterization. Finally, the LCA results of an ETICS application for façade renovation were compared considering as functional unit 1m2 of façade with similar thermal resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main aim of this paper is to review existing European policies relevant to the biomass value chains and examine how their main objectives support or align with the five core objectives (pillars) identified under the 2018 Bioeconomy Strategy. The paper also discusses key challenges that restrict the compliance of the policies to the Strategy, identifies policy gaps and provides recommendations for future policy formation. A structured review was conducted of over ninety policies relevant to the biomass, bioprocessing and biobased products. The value chain approach was used as a tool to harmonise these sectors under a common bioeconomy framework and provides an understanding of how key activities and challenges are being addressed. Several gaps were identified in relation to these challenges in each stage, at land use stage a lack of European-wide harmonised characterisation of marginal land and integration among sectoral policies targeting soil quality and financial measures incentivising the uptake of sustainable soil improvers. At the biomass production stage, inadequate policy support was found for waste mobilisation and valorisation. Furthermore, there is a lack of policy provisions and financial support improving collaborations among value chain actors to overcome the complexity associated with harmonising biomass logistics and conversion processes. Finally, regarding the end use stage, policy interventions targeting the distribution and standardisation of the wide, available range of biobased products and services remain limited. Based on this gap analysis, a set of recommendations was produced outlining ways in which policy measures can be updated through introducing either financial, regulatory or information provisions, or formulating novel policies altogether. These recommendations were made following the value chain analysis approach, which addresses specific challenges in relation to the five core objectives of the Bioeconomy Strategy, with the aim of further increasing the level of coherence among sectoral policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The COVID-19 crisis emphasizes the need to use renewable energy sources to boost economic competitiveness, strengthen energy security, ensure accessibility, create new jobs, and improve air quality across Europe. Central and South-East Europe's energy systems could be transformed through massive uptake of cost-competitive renewable power generation, efficient electrification of heat and transport, and increased investments in sustainable bioenergy across the regional system. Non-renewable energies are closely related to energy policy in Europe. All forms of energy are used to serve to generate electricity, hot water, and other opportunities. Energy is vital for the functioning of Europe and developing a common energy policy is welcome. The European Energy Charter and the Green Paper Energy are some ways to support the political unity of the EU. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The building sector has a central role in achieving the European goals of a zero-emission and fully decarbonized stock by 2050. Among the provisions of the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) recast, the implementation of the cost-optimal methodology marked a novel approach in the establishment of minimum energy performance requirements for new and existing buildings. Member States must develop cost-optimal calculations every 5 years to verify and accordingly update the national requirements in force. This paper analyses the latest national cost-optimal reports, providing an updated assessment of the implementation of the cost-optimal methodology throughout Europe. It quantifies the progress in reaching cost-optimal levels in comparison with the previous assessment. It focuses on the conformity and plausibility of calculations in compliance with the policy framework. Furthermore, it evaluates the gap with national requirements, showing that the gap is higher than 15% only in a few Member States. The results provide a comprehensive review of the European progress towards cost-optimality in both the residential sector (average cost-optimal level 80 kWh/m2y for new, 130 kWh/m2y for existing buildings) and the non-residential sector (140 kWh/m2y for new, 180 kWh/m2y for existing buildings). An overall positive development can be inferred from the analysis of the Member States' progress in the methodology's implementation. The review also gives inputs for the cost-optimal methodology update foreseen for 2026 (e.g., cost-optimality for districts and historical buildings). The outcomes assume a crucial relevance for the ambitious energy efficiency targets established by Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the heterogeneity of ways through which a policy innovation affects the structure and the complex interactions taking place within a business ecosystem and how different business ecosystems react differently to a policy innovation, given their structural and behavioural characteristics. The paper focuses on a specific policy innovation, namely the collective switching. We performed a cross-country analysis using the 6C framework as a tool for identifying differences in the structure and behaviours of energy business ecosystems after the introduction of collective switching. We examined in rich detail 11 European countries' collective switching campaigns, and provide an accurate description of the transformations of their energy business ecosystems. Semi-structured interviews, conducted with consumer associations that organised collective switching campaigns, provide insights for the definition of some policy interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reports on the green paper on energy policy of the European Commission. Acceptance of the paper by the European Chemical Industry Council; Views of Peter Claes, energy committee chairman of the council, on the benefit of the initiative for energy markets; Proposal of the commission of the creation of shared strategic gas stocks.

We bring together a collection of papers that were presented at the inaugural event of the Asia-Europe Energy Policy Research Network (AEEPRN), held at Singapore in May 2012. The idea for creating AEEPRN was in response to the growing importance of energy in Asia and Europe's relations and to our shared belief that energy will become a more significant aspect of these relations over the forthcoming years and decades. The papers presented here cover the following themes: wind energy, biofuels, natural gas and gas pipelines, exergy and manufacturing, green energy co-operation, coal, unconventional gas and solar energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous studies have documented the critical market barriers that suppress consumer investments in energy efficiency well below economically optimal levels. Meanwhile, the policy imperatives for increasing such investments - particularly the need to address global climate change - have never been more compelling. This paper examines how a new policy construct - an energy efficiency feed-in-tariff (EE FiT) - might be designed to address this problem. While an EE FiT will not always be the best approach, its potential benefits merit serious consideration where alternative programmatic routes to efficiency are not well-established. In particular, EE FiTs offer the potential to create new markets and enable new market entrants to uncover and deliver EE resources. This market-based approach may also have advantages in jurisdictions facing political objections to other methods of funding efficiency initiatives. However, as the European experience with FiTs for renewable power reveals, any jurisdiction considering adoption of an EE FiT will need to consider a range of questions, both fundamental and practical. This paper identifies key policy issues and options for EE FiT design. No jurisdiction to date has created an explicit EE FiT; this paper draws on experience in Europe with white certificate programmes, and in the US with utility efficiency mandates and regional capacity markets, in particular the "standard offer" programmes that have been offered by obligated entities over the past two decades. The standard offer programmes differ from a pure efficiency FiT, as they have been offered as part of a portfolio of measures designed jointly to meet an energy savings obligation, not as the fundamental policy construct for achieving savings. Nevertheless, they offer valuable insights into the policy and implementation choices that would need to be made to enable an EE FiT to effectively deliver on its promise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to showcase different decarbonization pathways for Europe with varying Carbon dioxide (CO2) constraints until 2050. The Global Energy System Model (GENeSYS-MOD) framework, a linear mathematical optimization model, is used to compute low-carbon scenarios for 17 European countries or regions. The sectors power, lowand high-temperature heating, and passenger and freight transportation are included, with the model endogenously constructing capacities in each period. Emission constraints differ between different scenarios and are either optimized endogenously by the model, or distributed on a per-capita basis, GDP-dependent, or based on current emissions. The results show a rapid phase-in of renewable energies, if a carbon budget in line with established international climate targets is chosen. It can be shown that the achievement of the 2° target can be met with low additional costs compared to the business as usual case, while reducing total emissions by more than 30%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the optimal capacity choices of conventional power generators after the introduction of renewable production. We start with a basic and generally accepted model of the liberalized wholesale electricity market in which firms have insufficient incentives to invest and we illustrate how the entry of renewable generation tends to aggravate that problem. We show that the incentives to invest in firm capacity (e.g. conventional thermal plants) may be restored by means of a capacity auction mechanism. That mechanism is vulnerable and, hence, may prove ineffective unless governments can credibly commit not to sponsor the entry of new capacity outside the auction mechanism. We explain that such commitment may be particularly difficult in the current political context where energy policy is conditioned by environmental and industrial-policy goals. We finally propose a way to enhance the credibility of capacity auctions by committing to optimally retire idle (conventional) power plants in response to entry outside the auction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Waste heat from industry or urban facilities represents a largely underused and long disregarded energy source, while heating and cooling count for half the final energy demand in Europe. From the early 2010s onwards, waste heat recovery (WHR) is being recognized as a key challenge for energy transition and tends to be integrated into energy strategies at different levels. This paper provides an analysis of how WHR became a matter of public policy in Europe and in France. Based on a literature review, the analysis shows that WHR has been framed as a techno-economic problem, while some barriers (legal, organizational) to its development remain largely unaddressed. A study of European and French energy agendas illustrates how WHR progressively started to be recognized as an energy resource next to renewables. As a result, questions are raised as to further social science contributions to an extended research agenda addressing WHR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2018, an agreement between the key EU institutions--the Commission, the European Parliament, and the European Council--was reached after a long-lasting discourse over the 2030 EU climate and energy policy package. This paper offers a comprehensive assessment of the EU package, with its three main targets: lower greenhouse gas emissions, higher renewable share in final energy consumption, and improved energy efficiency. We find that the renewable and energy efficiency targets have been set so high that the derived emissions reduction (50 percent) exceeds the EU climate target (40 percent). Hence, there is no need for an EU climate policy, for example, to use carbon prices to reach the EU climate goals. It is, however, not cost-efficient to achieve the climate target by imposing the three EU targets. We demonstrate that a cost-efficient policy that obtains a 50 percent GHG emissions reduction would increase annual welfare (relative to the Reference scenario) by an amount corresponding to 0.6 percent of GDP in Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy consumption reduction and energy efficiency improvement are recognized as global priorities in the context of the green economy and sustainable development. In this paper, determinants of energy efficiency and energy consumption for the panel of 11 post-communist countries in the Eastern Europe during 1996-2013 are investigated. The stochastic frontier function approach and comparative analysis were used to examine long-run dynamic relations. The research results show that GDP growth is a key factor increasing both energy efficiency and energy consumption. The research results on energy efficiency relations show that CO2 emissions per capita, a fixed capital and the share of industry in the economy are other important drives. In the context of per capita energy consumption growth, the factors of structural changes determined by industry share in the national economy and innovation concerned with development and implementation of high technologies are significant. The European Union accession and participation in the European energy policy promote to energy efficiency improvements in the post-communist countries while progress in governance and enterprise restructuring as measured by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development is not important for energy efficiency and per capita energy consumption in the post-communist countries. According to the research results, energy efficiency policy in the sample countries should be aimed at providing further economic growth enhancing a positive impact of other factors and implementing energy efficiency projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the paper is to address the EU policy for achieving low carbon economy by assessing energy technologies in electricity and road transport sector based on costs and impact on climate change and to indicate the most competitive electricity and transport technologies taking into account EU policy targets in GHG emission reduction, utilization of renewable and energy efficiency improvements. The main tasks of the paper are: to develop the multi-criteria framework for comparative assessment of energy technologies by applying MCDM methods for the electricity generation and transport technologies assessment. The interval TOPSIS method is employed in order to tackle the uncertain criteria. The assessment framework allows the comparison of electricity generation technologies and road transport technologies in terms of their GHG emission reduction and economic impacts and facilitates decision making process in energy sector seeking to implement EU energy policies. The main indicators selected for technologies assessment are: private costs and life cycle GHG emissions. The ranking of energy technologies based on private costs and GHG emissions allowed prioritizing these technologies taking into account the lowest GHG emission reduction costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accounting for nearly 40% of final energy consumption, buildings are central to European energy policy. The Directive on Energy Performance of Buildings establishes a benchmarking system known as cost-optimality to set minimum energy performance requirements in new and existing buildings. This paper applies the cost-optimal methodology to an existing structure located in the Mediterranean area (Southern Italy). The building is composed of two units that have been considered for different uses: hotel and multi-residential. Several energy efficiency and renewable measures have been implemented both individually and as part of packages of measures. The cost-optimal solution has been identified as able to optimize energy consumption and costs from financial and macroeconomic perspectives. The first reference building (hotel use) shows a maximum reduction of primary energy and CO2 emission of about 42%, falling within the CasaClima energy class D, while the second reference building (residential use) achieves a value of 88% for primary energy and 85% for CO2 emissions, falling into class B. Thermal dispersions through the envelope can be limited using a suitable combination of insulating materials while a variety of technical variants are selected, such as VRF (variant refrigerant flow) systems, heat pumps with fan coils associated with controlled mechanical ventilation, solar thermal and photovoltaic. This paper illustrates the development of energy retrofit projects, in order to reach a balance between efficiency measures and costs for a building having two different uses, providing guidance to similar case studies related to a warm climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In its Green Paper on a 2030 framework for climate and energy policies, the European Commission calls for a framework for the future development of environment and energy policy beyond 2020. However, much like the Energy Roadmap 2050 adopted by the Commission in December 2011, the Green Paper is based on scenario assumptions that are, to a great extent, not up-to-date. The European Commission would need to provide updated model calculations rapidly to enable energy policy decisions to be taken on the basis of transparent and comprehensible scenarios. A comparison of recent estimates conducted by DIW Berlin indicates that the Commission systematically underestimates the cost of nuclear power and carbon capture, transport, and storage (CCTS), while the cost of renewables tends to be overestimated. In particular this applies to photovoltaics where current capital costs are, to a certain extent, already lower than the Commission's estimates for 2050. In contrast to renewables, neither nuclear energy nor carbon capture, transport, and storage are cost efficient enough to play a central role in the future European electricity mix. It is therefore vital for Europe to continue to focus on the further development of renewables. This requires the setting of ambitious renewables targets for 2030 as well as clear emissions reduction and energy efficiency targets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European Union (EU) and member states alike are following a tradition of addressing fuel poverty and vulnerability at the point of purchase by final consumers by seeking to influence the impact of income, energy price and the built environment on the ability of household consumers to access the energy that they need. By focusing on the conditions of energy transmission in the most rapidly growing renewable electricity sector in the UK – offshore wind – this paper aims to question whether the regulatory socio-technological framing of renewable electricity transmission is reproducing conditions for fuel poverty and vulnerability in the UK. By drawing a comparison with renewable electricity transmission in Bulgaria, this paper argues that the problem might be symptomatic of the EU as a whole. While not arguing against the proliferation of renewable electricity and its importance in meeting the 2020 targets, this paper calls for expanding the scope of fuel poverty alleviation policy throughout the whole renewable electricity supply chain, building on Helm's argument that energy companies at the middle of the supply chain are better suited to deliver fuel policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Buildings occupy an important role in our modern society. However, the existing buildings have a very low thermal protection, leading to high levels of energy consumption making the buildings sector among the most significant CO2 source in Europe. Even if new buildings have high performance levels, the majority of the building stock is represented by older buildings which require renovation work. The European Union has imposed important reduction of specific energy consumption in all sectors, but energy conservation in buildings remains a key element in obtaining the sustainable development as evidence of human solidarity beyond the limits of space and time. In this paper the importance of the energy reductions in the building sector is outlined and both the energy policy and building stock statistics in EU and Romania are presented. Moreover, some measures and initiatives at European level are discussed, focusing on some important themes: demography, housing stock age and energy requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the 1990s there was great attention and debate in the European Union (EU) and in OECD countries outside the EU on the use of voluntary agreements to attain environmental and sustainable energy policy goals. At the time there was a lot of theoretical analysis and discussions on this policy instrument and in particular on its effectiveness and cost efficiency. Before the debate was over, a number of important voluntary agreements to improve energy efficiency or reduce CO, emissions were implemented in Europe both at national and European levels. These voluntary agreements cover end-use equipment and appliances (e.g. cars, electric motors, residential appliances, etc.), industrial processes, and industrial energy management policies and practices. The paper classifies and analyses the different types of voluntary agreements aiming at improving energy efficiency in Europe, and reviews voluntary agreements and other initiatives of similar nature (voluntary programmes, unilateral commitments, self-regulation) in industrial sectors in a number of Member States of the European Union. The paper also examines some successful European initiatives of voluntary nature, including unilateral agreements for improved energy efficiency of end-use equipment, such as the European agreement on energy consumption of washing machines, and the European agreement on power consumption in standby mode of televisions and video cassette recorders (VCRs). The paper concludes that, if set up under the right institutional framework (as presented and discussed in the paper), voluntary agreements can deliver energy savings in a flexible and cost effective manner and could represent an important instrument for improving energy efficiency and climate change mitigation, in addition and co-ordination with other important policy instruments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The energy marker liberalisation process in Europe is increasingly focused on electricity market integration and related cross border issues. This signals that the liberalisation of national electricity markets is now closer to the long-term objective of a single European energy market. The interface between the national electricity markets requires physical interconnections and technical arrangements. However, further progress towards this objective also raises important issues regarding the framework within which the integrated market is implemented. This paper reviews the progress towards a single European electricity market. We then discuss the emerging issues of market concentration, investments, and security of supply as well as some aspects of market design and regulation that are crucial for dynamic performance of a single European market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of the city in environmental management is increasingly coming to the fore. A central element in creating urban environmental sustainability is the adoption of appropriate energy policies, since most environmental externalities in cities are directly or indirectly related to energy use. The current practice demonstrates an overwhelming variety of initiatives and policies, so that the actual success of such strategies in a cross-sectional comparative perspective is hard to evaluate. In this context, this paper offers an application of meta-analysis, as this approach is an interesting analytical contribution towards a better understanding of the critical success factors of urban energy policies. The paper starts with a general overview of the issue of urban sustainability and sets out the importance of energy policies at the urban level. It continues by offering a methodological framework for the assessment of critical factors related to the performance of sustainable energy strategies. Using a database containing information on experiences and expert expectations regarding renewable energy initiatives in 12 European cities spread over 3 countries (Italy, The Netherlands and Greece), we offer a cross-European comparative analysis of the performance of urban renewable energy technologies. This comparative analysis consists of a statistical explanation based on a probit analysis of urban sustainability data and the application of a specific meta-analytical method, called rough set analysis. The paper ends with a concluding section on policy lessons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change mainly caused by increased greenhouse gases and reduced fossil fuel reserves, have launched a more intensive use of renewable energy on a global scale. One of the oldest types of the renewable sources is well known small hydro electric facility. In this paper description of small hydro plant location, selection of the turbine, sizing of the plant, connecting plant to the grid, as well as the legal aspect and environmental impact of the future facility in Serbia are presented and discussed. Besides, techno-economic analysis of future small hydro electric plant is presented and discussed. The main contribution of this paper is multidisciplinary approach to complex analysis of building, integration, economic performance and environmental impact of a small hydro-plant demonstrated on the specific site in Serbia. Finally, major barriers and threats for the growth of the small hydro-electric power capacity have been identified and proposals to increase the penetration level of the small hydro and other renewable sources into the grid in Serbia are made. To increase the contribution of the small hydro and other renewables in Serbia and South-East Europe countries, the gouverments should remove all the bariers and strongly encourage the investment in the renewable energy sector. • Choice of small hydro plant location, sizing of the plant and the environmental impact are presented and discussed. • Verification of the requirements for connecting small hydro plant to the grid is presented. • Techno-economic analysis of small hydro electric plant is presented and discussed. • Major barriers and threats for the growth of the small hydro-electric power capacity have been identified. • Proposals to increase the penetration level of the small hydro plants into the grid in Serbia are made. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is no secret that while the European Union (EU) has taken up commitments to combat climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Paris Agreement and its own 2020 and 2030 climate and energy package strategy, the Union continues to be heavily dependent on the import of fossil fuels from abroad. One may even say that this leads to a cognitive dissonance, i.e. the discomfort which ensues if one holds two contradictory values, with respect to the externalisation of the Union's energy and sustainable development policy. On the one hand, the EU aims to become a global frontrunner in the field of promoting renewable energy and sustainable development. This expresses itself through the inclusion of specific chapters on Trade and Sustainable Development in the EU's Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) (standard since the 2011 EU-South Korea FTA). On the other, the EU realises that it is imperative to secure the Union's security of energy supply, still largely guaranteed by fossil fuels. Therefore, the Union in parallel attempts to eliminate discriminatory practices in international fossil fuel trade in its bilateral agreements (e.g. in the EU-Ukraine Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Agreement). This paper will explore the root causes of this cognitive dissonance and research what elements could contribute to ensuring more coherence in EU external energy policy. The objectives of sustainable development and security of supply are not necessarily contradictory per se. However, clearer delineations between the two objectives are necessary in EU external relations in general, and in the Union's FTAs more specifically. This also applies to relations between Member States and the Union in this area, as well as to the interactions between the relevant EU institutions tasked with energy, sustainable development and the environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - our paper aims at analysing how different European countries cope with the European Energy Policy, which proposes a set of measures (free energy market, smart meters, energy certificates) to improve energy utilization and management in Europe. Design/methodology/approach - The paper first reports the general vision, regulations and goals set up by Europe to implement the European Energy Policy. Later on, it performs an analysis of how some European countries are coping with the goals, legal, economical and regulatory measures. Finally, the paper draws a comparison between the countries to present a view on how Europe is responding to the emerging energy emergency of the modern world. Findings - our analysis on the cases of different use (countries) has shown that European countries are converging to a common energy policy, even though some countries appear to be later than others. In particular, Southern European countries were slowed down by the global financial and economical crisis. Still, it appears that contingency plans were put into action, and Europe as a whole is proceeding steadily towards the common vision. Research limitations/implications - European countries are applying yet more cuts to financing green technologies, and it is not possible to predict clearly how each country will evolve its support to the European energy policy. Moreover, we have only analysed a small number of countries. At the same time, we have selected countries belonging to different areas of Europe, and we consider that the countries selected as placeholders for the groups cover the whole normative spectrum that can be found in Europe. Practical implications - Different countries applied different measures to attain the targets set by the European Union. The implementation of the European energy policy has to cope with the resulting plethora of regulations, and a company proposing enhancement regarding energy management still has to possess robust knowledge of the single country, before being able to export experience and know-how between European countries. Originality/Value - Even though a few surveys on energy measures in Europe are already part of the state-of-the-art, organic analysis diagonal to the different topics of the European Energy Policy is missing. Moreover, this paper highlights how European countries are converging on a common view, and provides some details on the differences between the countries, thus facilitating parties interesting into cross-country export of experience and technology for energy management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Two mega-trends are rapidly emerging to reshape the European energy system: decarbonisation and digitalisation. Based on strong public policies, decarbonisation is already transforming the European energy mix, while industry-driven technological innovation is progressively opening-up new and potentially disruptive opportunities for evolving energy systems. These trends will transform the European energy system from a static, unidirectional and centralised model into a dynamic, multidimensional and more decentralised one. In this framework, the governance of the European energy system will also need to change. Traditional top-down energy and climate policy dynamics will need to be complemented by more bottom-up dynamics, and increasing interaction between local, national and EU policies will be essential. This paper provides an insight on these future developments, and suggests key policy coordinates to navigate these uncharted waters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current European energy policies have an influence on the need to rehabilitate the housing stock in order to meet the objectives of the European Union. Most of this housing stock was built without any type of energy regulation in adverse technical and economic conditions and thus is now energetically obsolete. The major rehabilitation effort required must be approached through actions based on previous quantitative energy knowledge of the existing buildings in order to guarantee the efficiency of energy-retrofitted solutions. This assessment can be carried out through monitoring dwellings conditioned by use patterns; through simulation programs, which do not usually offer faithful representations of energy conditions; or by using test cells, which allow us to evaluate a controlled indoor environment without the influence of users. The objective of this paper is to present the design and performance of test cells as an experimental method for vertical facade analysis in order to tackle the problem of retrofitting residential buildings in a Mediterranean climate, taking into account energy and environment. With this equipment, efficiency and energy savings, as well as illumination and interior air quality, can be simultaneously and comprehensively evaluated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building energy policy, such as the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD), has a direct effect on use of building models and related parameters. Modelling annual energy consumption of a building is a different task to characterizing the demand of that building at a transient level; to do so at scale requires additional complexity. With the ubiquity of Energy Performance Certificates (EPC) across Europe, there is a tendency to use these to communicate building energy demand to policy. However, there is growing evidence of EPCs being applied to areas which they were not designed to serve. By comparing alternative techniques with current methodologies, this study proposes future directions for standardized energy assessment of dwellings, proposing a framework for critiquing such techniques. New methods are formulated that make use of simulation and statistical techniques developed by the authors, and allow for urban-scale modelling that is consistent with traditional energy assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies the change in Energy Intensity (EI) of the main economic activities in the EU15 countries, which represents approximately 45% of their final energy consumption. The purpose is, first, to measure the different patterns between the countries by establishing differentiated typologies, and second, to investigate those reasons that explain the different trends by country. To attain our objective, the changes in EI are decomposed into their structural and efficiency components for EU15 countries for the period 1991-2005. Results reveal four different typologies for this set of countries, and show the importance of identifying those economic activities which, due to their special impact, are key to reducing energy consumption. The changes in the structural component are due mainly to a transformative process in which the importance of industry in the economy as a whole drops, while the opposite holds for services. However, the changes in the efficiency component do not seem to be linked to this same process. It does not appear as though the services sector resulted in a more efficient use of final energy. We have detected significant evidence of convergence for EI in the service sector that would help to understand the recent worsen evolution of EI in this sector (and in overall EI) of Southern European countries. It can also be concluded that an analysis of global EI change without distinguishing among its components can result in misleading conclusions and in improperly conceived Energy Policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An introduction is presented in which the authors discuss various reports within the issue on topics including Report on Energy and Climate Policy in Europe (RECIPE) Project, the results RECIPE project, and the role and value of technology in low carbon economy.

We estimate Armington elasticities for industrial roundwood in eight European countries for the period 1961–2007, and analyze how the estimated elasticities change over time. Results indicate increasing differentiation between domestic and imported volumes during the first half of the time period. However, for the latter half, a decreasing degree of specialization is observed. A plausible explanation is the removal of trade barriers during development of the internal European market. This trend of decreasing specialization is arguably going to continue in the future. For instance, the technical feasibility of using more heterogeneous feed-stock in the paper industry is increasing. Moreover, energy and climate policy is stimulating the use of wood as fuel in the energy sector. These changes in technology and new uses might further decrease the differentiation between domestic and imported industrial roundwood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article the authors reflect on the increased emphasis on the security of energy supply on its political agenda by European governments. The authors cites the example of the 2001 Green Paper on Energy Security in Europe. It warns that without an active energy policy, the European Union (EU) will not be able to free itself from its increasing energy dependence and highlights the urgent need to diversify the various sources of supply. The article also mentions the interruption of energy supplies from Russia to EU member states during the Russia-Ukraine gas disputes of 2006 and the Russia-Belarus oil dispute of 2007 which fuelled discussions in the EU about a energy crisis and the long-term security of energy supplies to Europe.

The ongoing disputes between Russia and its neighbouring states vis-a-vis the critical transmission of primary energy resources to the remainder of the European continent has led Brussels to place the matter squarely within the scope of European Union (EU) energy security policy. EU-Russia energy negotiations have more often than not displayed patterns of rationalism with an ingrained cost-benefit orientation. Notwithstanding, this incidence has been complicated by the reality of changing geo-political constellations in Central and Eastern Europe in the course of the past two decades. This has influenced the political landscape of EU-Russia negotiations concerning projects under construction, as well as proposed others on the continent, such as Nord Stream (bypassing Belarus and Poland) and South Stream (bypassing Ukraine). Given such considerations, we observe that the Czech Presidency of the Council of the EU in the first half of 2009 has shown greater leniency towards Ukraine, Belarus and Poland than the general consensus in EU-Russia energy talks maintained in Brussels would have otherwise provided for. We also observe that France and Germany are driven by a greater rational self-interest in their conduct of EU energy security policy. In consequence, Russia's awareness of the divergent dispositions amongst the EU Member States becomes the dependent variable in our analysis. Thus, the primary question that this paper poses is whether rational cost-benefit orientations in individual EU Member States can lead to collective bargaining outcomes in EU-Russia energy negotiations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

faces a growing import dependency over the next decades. Europe's neighbouring regions are endowed with substantial reserves and resources which can cover the increasing European import requirements in the medium to long term. With the development of its different uses, especially for power generation, gas is increasingly gaining importance for European energy security of supply. A substantial captive demand has indeed developed during the past decade, which explains the essential role the EU gives to natural gas in its energy policy. Securing and increasing gas supply will, however, require huge investments on all the segments of the gas chain, namely exploration and development, international transit and downstream infrastructures (gas lines and storage). These investments will be realised by energy companies and will, therefore, require an appropriate investment climate, which not only involves economic considerations but also a stable environment, a clear regulation and the possibility for operators to develop necessary strategic partnerships. This paper assesses the future long term (2010-2020-2030) gas import requirements and external supply potential for Europe, and identifies future gas corridor infrastructure needs taking into account a reserve/resource analysis, production and demand outlooks, export infrastructure and projects, supply costs as well as institutional, strategy and geopolitical issues, etc. Finally, the paper identifies investment barriers for different types of gas corridor infrastructure projects and proposes issues to be addressed by policymakers in order to put in place a favourable environment regarding investment promotion and to create a sustainable gas market for the long term. The paper is based on the work carried out by OME in the framework of the ENCOURAGED (Energy Corridor Optimization for the European Markets for Gas, Electricity and Hydrogen) project financed by the European Commission DG-Research 6th Research and Development Framework Programme. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports on the European economists' view on energy policy statements made by the Commission of European Communities. The European Union issued energy policy statements including "Green Paper: A European Strategy for Sustainable, Competitive and Secure Energy," "The Energy Challenge: Energy Review Report 2006," and "Global Energy Security." The said statements have certain similarities and pertinent distinctions. The common feature is that they attempt to appeal to all interest groups. Each claims to aim an achieving goal concerning energy efficiency, global energy security, and protection of the environment.

The development of a south energy corridor connecting Europe with the natural gas reserves of the broader Caspian Region and Middle East aims at increasing the EU security and diversification of energy supply. In this paper, the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) method with geopolitical, economic and technical criteria is applied to define the most preferred route of the transcontinental gas pipeline that branches in SE Europe to transport Caspian gas further into the targeted markets of Europe. The paper is divided into five sections. The first introduces the purpose of the paper. The second describes the used AHP method in detail (criteria, sub-criteria, weights, consistency indexes). The third briefly addresses the need of EU to diversify its supply sources and the planned gas projects in SE Europe. In the fourth section, the method is applied to the four alternative pipeline routes and the robustness of the results is examined with sensitivity analysis. The fifth section comments on the results of the method. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

European energy policy has not faced up to something about which there is increasingly little doubt: global reduction, or even stabilisation in energy use will not be achieved unless Europe and the other rich OECD countries aim at significantly curbing their energy services (heat, light, motive power, mobility and so on). The policy makers at the centre of the policy discourse on energy sustainability suffer from a form for self-deception which revolves around the equation of 'efficiency' with 'reduction' and 'sustainability', i.e., the untenable contention that technological and market efficiency alone will offset continued growth in energy services to the extent that deep reductions in energy use are possible. Many researchers and environmentalists seem to have, partly for strategic reasons, adapted to this view and thereby supported politicians in the selfdeception. In this paper we use results from India and China, with more than one third of the world population, to show how there is likely to be dramatic increases in energy use and greenhouse gas emissions in those countries over the next halfcentury. Much of this increase will be in conjunction with the development of basic services and infrastructure for homes, businesses, transport, health and public services, so that it is neither ethical nor even practical to argue for restrictions in overall energy growth in these and other developing countries. This places the onus for deep reductions in energy use on Europe, North America and the other affluent countries. The paper explores what such a change of focus would mean for policy and research agendas, and why there is friction to moving the policy envelope from 'efficiency' to also include 'sufficiency'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Renewable energy sources are vital to achieving Europe's 2030 energy transition goals. Technological innovation, driven by public expenditures on research and development, is a major driver for this change. Thus, an extensive dataset on these expenditures of the European Member States and the European Commission, dating back to the early 1970s, was created. This paper creates predictive scenarios of public investment in renewable energy research and development in Europe based on this historical dataset and current trends. Funding from both, European Member States and the European Commission, between today and 2030 are used in the analysis. The impact on the cumulative knowledge stock is also estimated. Two projection scenarios are presented: (1) business as usual; and (2) an advanced scenario, based on the assumption that the Mission Innovation initiative causes public expenditures to increase in the coming years. Both scenarios are compared to the European 2030 climate and energy framework target sets. Results indicate that Member States in Europe currently tend to fund renewables more than the European Commission, but funding from both sources is expected to increase in the future. Furthermore, the European Commission distributes its funding more equally across the various renewable energy sources than Member States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper delves into the potential impact of a changing climate on the energy performance of European buildings. Research aims to provide a comprehensive evaluation of current energy requirements focusing on the envelope, considering existing regulations in national policies. Energy simulations are conducted at 94 locations across the European Union to cover the climatic variability and Koppen climate classification. The research analyzes future climate scenarios for the years 2030, 2050, and 2070, using three different Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP 2.6, 4.5, 8.5). According to a comprehensive analysis of heating, cooling, and overall energy performance, climate plays a significant role in buildings' energy balance. In moderately cool climate countries, the demand for air conditioning is projected to decrease in the years ahead. Conversely, in countries with a warm climate, there is a projected increase in the overall energy demand. Consequently, a revision of current energy regulations should be a priority. Providing insights into the relation between building design, energy efficiency, and climate change, the research identifies policy adjustments to ensure buildings can effectively respond to changing climatic conditions. A holistic and dynamic approach can support building design accounting for long-term impacts of climate change to create resilient and energy-efficient structures. • National building energy regulations of European Member States do not tackle climate change. • Over next decades, a decrease in heating demand is forecasted across all climate zones. • There is potential for a future considerable increase of cooling demand in Europe. • A reduction in total building energy demand in colder climates and an increase in warmer climates can be expected. • Revise national energy regulations, especially in warmer zones, to curb the expected rise in Europe's total energy demand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy policy of the European Community is implemented by setting various goals in directives and developing support mechanisms to achieve them. However, very often these policies and legislation come into contradiction with each other, for example Directive 2009/28/EC on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and Directive 2012/27/EU on energy efficiency, repealing Directive 2004/8/EC on the promotion of cogeneration based on a useful heat demand. In this paper, the authors attempt to assess the potential conflicts between policy political objectives to increase the share of high-efficiency co-generation and renewable energy sources (RES), based on the example of Riga district heating system (DHS). If a new heat source using biomass is built on the right bank of Riga DHS to increase the share of RES, the society could overpay for additional heat production capacities, such as a decrease in the loading of existing generating units, thereby contributing to an inefficient use of existing capacity. As a result, the following negative consequences may arise: 1) a decrease in primary energy savings (PES) from high-efficiency cogeneration in Riga DHS, 2) an increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the Baltic region, 3) the worsening security situation of electricity supply in the Latvian power system, 4) an increase in the electricity market price in the Lithuanian and Latvian price areas of Nord Pool power exchange. Within the framework of the research, calculations of PES and GHG emission volumes have been performed for the existing situation and for the situation with heat source, using biomass. The effect of construction of biomass heat source on power capacity balances and Nord Pool electricity prices has been evaluated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]