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The television broadcasting industry is of crucial economic and social importance. Traditionally, this industry has been dominated by free-to-air TV (FTV) but due to technological progress, subscription-based pay TV (PTV) has emerged as a competing business model. A key question for the PTV broadcasters is whether to air commercials in addition to charging subscription fees. Based on a theoretical model of asymmetric competition between a PTV and an FTV broadcaster, we examine the effects of placing PTV advertising on broadcaster market strategies, viewer demands, broadcaster profits and consumer surplus. We find that introducing advertising on PTV can induce a higher viewer demand on this channel but a lower viewer demand on the FTV channel. Surprisingly, consumers can benefit through the introduction of advertising in PTV and broadcaster profits can increase if the viewer disutility of advertising is sufficiently large. Our study provides an analytical framework for choosing and implementing an optimal PTV strategy when an FTV competitor preexists in the market. Furthermore, our study derives implications for policymakers and regulatory authorities by showing that additional PTV advertising is not necessarily socially undesirable due to the strategic market reactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Color is an emotional element that moves people's minds. Advertising stimulates people 's emotions, raising the value of goods and promoting consumers' desire to purchase. The color strategy in advertising has become an important element of marketing. In today's competitive environment, color marketing is used as a key management strategy that differentiates itself from other products and determines the success or failure of the company. Based on the Big Data collected by Creative Advertising Center of Korea Advertising Association, this paper analyzed to find elements other than the color marketing strategy used in the existing advertisements. In this paper, we propose a new method to collect color information using K-means clustering based on the advertisement image collected by web crawling, and analyzed the correlation between the consumers 'involvement' and the color of the advertisement according to the advertisement category. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research demonstrates the positive effects of moment-to-moment entertainment and the negative effects of moment-to-moment information value on consumers' likelihood to continue watching during a television commercial. A notable finding is that both the entertainment and the information value have a strong multiplicative effect on the probability to stop viewing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A crucial communication task for unknown brands is to build the knowledge in consumers' minds necessary to become established. However, communication effectiveness may depend on prior familiarity of the advertised brand. The findings of two experiments using television ads and computer Internet ads revealed that brand familiarity influenced repetition effectiveness. In particular, repetition of advertising attributed to an unfamiliar brand showed decreased effectiveness; when the same advertising was attributed to a known, familiar brand, repetition wearout was postponed. Negative thoughts about tactic inappropriateness were seen to arise with repetition, particularly for an ad for an unfamiliar brand, driving, in part, the decreases in repetition effectiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study compares television advertisements from Japan, Russia, Sweden, and the United States are compared. Consistent with Hofstede's framework which suggests that countries may be characterized along a continuum from masculine to feminine, the authors found that television advertisements from feminine countries featured more depictions of relationships for male and female characters than did masculine countries. Expectations of fewer gender differences in feminine countries than in masculine countries and of greater depictions of productivity being found in television advertisements from masculine countries were not realized, however. Implications of these findings for the international advertiser are considered, and future directions for research are suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent research suggests that music comprises a sign system that could add meanings to advertising. However, research in this area is scant and there is practically no research that has examined the process by which consumers use music to create meanings. This study extends previous research on print advertising to delineate effects of music in congruent/incongruent TV advertising. A mixed design integrating features of qualitative and quantitative methods was used. Results indicated that the viewers' knowledge of cultural texts form a reference point for reading the commercials. Specifically, music in congruent ads reduces 'noise' by reinforcing the connecting cultural context to communicate meanings. However, music in incongruent ads helps enact an alternative context that is meaningful to the viewer to communicate the ad message. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author examines the effects of emotional responses to television programming (program-induced affect) on attitude toward the ad (Aad). He finds that both thoughts about the program and overall program evaluations (i.e., program liking) mediate the effect of program-induced affect on Aad, and that emotional responses to the ad moderate the relationship between program liking and Aad. More specifically, the program liking-Aad linkage is strengthened if the ad and program are similar in emotional content. That effect is enhanced for ads appearing early within a pod. The author proposes and tests a model specifying the nature of the relationships among those variables, and discusses the practical implications for advertising practitioners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study employed content analysis to examine animation and animated spokes-characters in television advertising. The majority of spokes-characters observed in this study were humans, animal personifications, or product personifications. Characters were more likely to speak for the product than provide visual demonstration although they did both in more than half the cases. There were far more non-celebrity than celebrity spokes-characters, and a large majority of them were male. Significant differences were found in the use of animation across dayparts, program types, product classes and product categories. Although no increase was evident in the use of animation since the last study was completed, there was evidence to suggest that the role of animation has been changing in the past decade. Findings indicate that animated spokes-characters are being used more often to present high involvement products to adult audiences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article comments on the use of humor or parody in advertising. Analysts speculate that parody is a form of humor that has the potential to work well in a variety of media. They warn however that legal issues are still developing in terms of the potential ethical issues associated with the use of parody in advertising. In the instance of parody there is a danger when the audience does not get the joke. In some situations audience members may find the parody to be offensive. Offensive commercial messages are a major ethical concern within advertising.

This study examines the effect of the mood induced by television program content on subjects' evaluations of commercials. Specifically, happy or sad commercials are viewed in the context of a television program designed to induce these respective moods. The competing predictions of Mood Congruence Theory versus the Consistency Effect are examined to interpret the results. For all dependent measures considered, findings were in accordance with a Consistency Effect interpretation of the results. For two such measures (i.e., liking for the commercial and purchase intention) the Consistency Effect was statistically supported. Hence for these measures, it was found that a happy commercial viewed in the context of a happy program was evaluated more favorably than the same commercial viewed after exposure to a sad program. For the sad commercial, the reverse effects for these measures were evident as this commercial performed inure favorably in the context of a sad program relative to a happy one. The dominance of a Consistency Effect interpretation of the results over that of Mood Congruence are interpreted in the context of advertising strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A content analysis of the major networks and three cable networks was conducted to investigate the current status of animation in television advertising. A total of 2,454 advertisements were analyzed over a seven-day period. Findings suggest that advertisers are using animation as a method of execution in their TV advertisements directed at adults as well as children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes that the power of advertising be harnessed to address a significant social problem: the influence of advertising on children's consumption behavior. The Federal Trade Commission is currently studying regulations that would ban or severely restrict television advertising to children. Analysis from both marketing strategy and legal standpoints demonstrates that regulation will not solve the problem. It is suggested that, an advertising campaign, sponsored by the FTC, and created and executed by a private advertising agency, might accomplish what regulation cannot. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the frequent discussion and usage of comparative advertising, very few studies have empirically examined the phenomenon. This article reports the findings of a content analysis of 896 nationally televised advertisements. Results on the types of products compared, the competitive advantages stressed, the extent to which competition is noted, and the frequency of comparative advertising are reported. The study showed that strictly defined comparative advertisements are a relatively small percentage of total national television advertisements. Results also suggest that certain product types are more likely to utilize comparisons. Furthermore, quality is clearly the most common attribute stressed in comparative advertisements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors analyze results of 389 BEHAVIORSCAN® matched household, consumer panel, spilt cable, real world T.V. advertising weight, and copy tests. Additionally, study sponsors--packaged goods advertisers, T.V. networks, and advertising agencies--filled out questionnaires on 140 of the tests, which could test common beliefs about how T.V. advertising of the tests, which could test common beliefs about how T. V. advertising works, to evaluate strategic media, and copy variables unavailable from the BEHAVIORSCAN® results. Although some of the variables did indeed identify T.V. advertising that positively affected sales, many of the variables did not differentiate among the sales effects of different advertising treatments. For example, increasing advertising budgets in relation to competitors does not increase sales in general. However, changing brand, copy, and media strategy in categories with many purchase occasions in which in-store merchandising is low increases the likelihood of T.V. advertising positively affecting sales. The author's data do not show a strong relationship between standard recall and persuasion copy test measures and sales effectiveness. The data also suggest different variable formulations for choice and market response models that include advertising. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors review the two-factor elaboration model of message repetition effects and report a study of the model's applicability to new product advertising. The study findings do not support the hypothesized inverted-U relationship between repetition and attitude toward a novel commercial and product. However, the underlying processes of learning, tedium arousal, and elaboration were observed. Viewer knowledge and commercial length did not moderate these processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unique field experiment data provided by the Milwaukee Advertising Laboratory were used to investigate the individual and interactive effects upon market shares of some marketing mix variables at two controlled levels of aggregate TV advertising exposure opportunity. The analysis showed interactive effects to be among the significant determinants of brand share. Market response to advertising, for instance, was found to depend upon the experimental brand's relative price level. Also, an exploratory hypothesis that high levels of TV advertising may correspond with a shift of relative effectiveness from TV advertising to other promotional variables was tested and supported. The results suggest the benefits of controlled field experiments and the importance of including interactive variables in models of market demand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reports an empirical study designed to provide advertisers with information concerning the personality and life-style characteristics of television program audiences. The results indicate that audiences are relatively heterogeneous in terms of psychographic characteristics. These variables appear to be of limited value for describing audience composition or predicting viewing behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has been suggested that increasing levels of clutter on television lead to diminished memory retrieval for advertised brands. Although earlier studies have shown that clutter decreases an individual's ability to recall a brand, it is not clear that clutter will have the same effect on other measures of memory. Two experiments with important methodologic differences from prior clutter studies investigated the impact of clutter on recognition, aided recall, and unaided recall. The results suggest that clutter may not significantly affect an individuals true ability to remember what was seen. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impact of the feeling of warmth created by a commercial, as measured by the "warmth monitor," is explored in a series of three studies. The first study examines the relationship between warmth and arousal as measured by skin response. The other studies explore the relationship between warmth and advertising responses such as liking of the ad and purchase likelihood through testing ads with warm and other execution strategies. They also test the effects of sequences of commercials on warmth responses and on the impact of the ad. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article the author describes a technique that an advertising agency uses to analyze their own commercials. The author notes that the majority of advertising is successful in producing a quality advertisement for a useful product. He examines how purchasing decisions are being made and notes that emotion is beginning to play a larger role in the choices that consumers make. This notion presents advertisers with a new objective in their work. Not only do they have to provide solid facts about a product, they have to do so in a way that appeals to the consumer to a greater degree then the competition.

The article presents abstracts of marketing literature related to advertising and sales promotion. They include "What is Available in Syndicated Film for Television," by Lawrence W. Lichty, "A Note on the Golden Age of Advertising," by David M. Blank, and "18,000,000 Book Nobody Reads," by Reynolds Girdler.

Many readers will be surprised to learn of the timely marketing practices and institutions which characterize the small nation of Finland. Its "Americana" marketing appearance, exemplified by planned shopping centers, television advertising, and self-service stores seems incongruous with a common border with the Soviet Union. Wholesaling, retailing, and advertising are some of the areas included in this firsthand report of Finnish marketing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents abstracts of marketing articles related to advertising and sales promotion. They include "How to Get Ahead in Advertising and Maybe Stay There," by Stephen Mahoney, "Changes in Radio Programming, 1960-61," by Sherman P. Lawton, and "Put the Price in the Ad," by Polly Price.

The high costs of television make it increasingly important that TV commercials appear on programs which reach the right prospects for the advertised products and for isolating program audiences in large numbers for subsequent analysis of characteristics. The authors believe that a method now exists. Their article describes a method to expand the sample, without expanding cost unduly, and without affecting reliability of data obtained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents various abstracts relating to marketing focused on advertising, including the articles "The Advertising Budgets of Most U.S. Businesses Are Still Too Low. Is Yours?;" "The Advertising Force--Its Challenge and Potentials in Today's Economy," by Paul Mazur; and "Color to the Rescue of TV's Boom."

The piggyback technique is becoming more important in television advertising. This article examines behavioral and media considerations that contribute to the popularity of the piggyback, and reports results of an experimental study of the effect on television viewers of piggyback. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents the results of a series of multiple regression analyses in which past market share, advertising expenditure share, and test scores for television commercials were used of predict changes in market shares. The results suggest that the qualify of advertising message content-and-presentation, as measured by that test scores, is closely related to short-term changes in market shires for food and drug products. This relationship implies that marketing models based on dollar expenditures alone cannot provide sufficient explanations of market response to advertising. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the article the importance of international positioning strategy of Ukrainian advertising service companies on European media market is considered. The major tendencies of the development of the television advertising market in European countries are analyzed. The strengths of Ukrainian companies providing television advertising services are defined. Methodological approach to develop the international positioning strategy of goods/services is developed. The model of developing the strategy was implemented on the example of advertising industry. Marketing activity of Ukrainian companies providing television advertising services on European media market was researched and the international positioning strategy was developed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and aims To identify the nature of visual alcohol references in alcohol advertisements during televised broadcasts of the 2014 FIFA World Cup Tournament matches and to evaluate cross-national differences according to alcohol marketing policy restrictiveness. Design Content analysis using the Delphi method and identification of in-game sponsorships. Setting Television broadcasts of the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Finland, France, Mexico, Spain and the United States. Cases Eighty-seven alcohol advertisements; 20 matches. Measurements Quantitative rating scales, combined with the Delphi rating technique, were used to determine compliance of the alcohol advertisements with the International Alliance for Responsible Drinking's (IARD) Guiding Principles. Recordings of five matches from four countries were also used to identify the number of in- and out-of-game alcohol brand appearances. Findings A total of 86.2% of all unique alcohol advertisements contained at least one violation of IARD's Guiding Principles, with violation rates ranging from 72.7% (Mexico) to 100% (Brazil). Countries with the least restrictive marketing policies had a higher prevalence of violations in guidelines designed to protect minors. There were 2.76 in-game alcohol brand appearances and 0.83 out-of-game alcohol brand appearances per minute. Brand appearances did not differ across countries or according to a country's marketing policy restrictiveness. Conclusions Self-regulation and statutory policies were ineffective at limiting alcohol advertising during the 2014 FIFA World Cup Tournament television broadcasts. Most advertisements contained content that violated the self-regulation codes, and there were high levels of within-broadcast brand appearances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The aim of the study is to investigate the role of media sequence on consumers' responses to cross-media campaigns. To do so, we conducted an experiment in which we studied the effects of a combination of TV commercials and websites (TV commercial–website vs. website–TV commercial) for two different product categories. The results indicated a consistent interaction effect of media sequence and product involvement regarding two campaign targets: attitudes toward the ads and message evaluation. These interaction effects showed that while a TV commercial–website sequence was effective for informing consumers about both high- and low-involvement products, the website–TV commercial sequence was only suitable for informing consumers about high involvement products. The main conclusion is that the sequence of exposure is vital in cross-media campaigns. The study also demonstrates under which conditions this is particularly important. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Consumers' suspicion towards traditional marketing techniques, led marketers to try the virtual media communication form called disguise advertising as other forms of messages. The examples include making advertisements resemble news items (Aditya 2001; Levine 1993; Richards 1992), the infomercials in the '90s that disguise advertising as TV programs (Levine 1993; Lacher and Rotfeld 1994), making celebrities use the products in their real lives or in films (Aditya 2001), feeding media information using public relations (PR) activities like bribing journalists with gifts and making TV stations use the footages from press releases (Gillin 2006). Because of the prevalence of virtual media, the marketing practices that conceal the real sources (marketers) with disguised sources have posed both ethical and policy concerns. This article proposed a new typology that covered the comprehensive scope of disguised marketing practices, discussed the deceptive nature of this marketing technique from the consumer behavioral view- points, and conducted a 2 x 3 experiment to test the hypothesized relationships. The results suggest that an implicit message, disguised source's preference, is likely to be conveyed in covert marketing and thus results in high a deceptive tendency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To describe food advertised on networks serving children and youth, and to compare ads on English-language networks with ads on Spanish networks. Design: Analysis of television food advertisements appearing on Saturday morning and weekday afternoons in 2005-2006. A random sample of 1,130 advertisements appearing on 12 networks catering to Spanish-language, children, youth, Black youth, and general audiences were analyzed. Main Outcome Measures: Each advertisement was coded for the nature of the item promoted, the selling propositions used, and any nutritional claims made. Analysis: Cross-tabulations using Fisher's exact test (P < .05 criterion). Results: One-fifth of commercials were for food. Food ads were especially prevalent on Saturday programs and children's networks. Seventy percent of food ads were for items high in sugar or fat. More than one fourth of food advertisements were for fast-food restaurants, which were especially common on MTV and Spanish-language networks. Ads for fruits and vegetables were rare (1.7%). One nutrition-related public service announcement was found for every 63 food ads. Conclusions and Implications: Food advertisements continue to promote less-healthful items. Until marketing of high calorie, low-nutrient food to children is restricted, education and media literacy remain the best strategies for mitigating advertising effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Japan's advertising industry has a long history of employing foreign actors. This article probes the proposition that over time this media exposure affects advertising industry's willingness to change and meld the presentation of foreign people in local contexts in ads. An empirical study supports the proposition that some level of foreign-domestic advertising assimilation- dynamic is occurring in Japan. The article reports a content analysis examining 102 television advertisements run during 1992 and 2002 that confirms the principle proposition. Changes in verbal and nonverbal communication modalities suggest that foreign-actor domestic assimilation is occurring. The article illustrates how advertisers go about showing foreigners in Japanese contexts to transform the old saw, "Think global, act local" into the more actionable dictum, "Meld global inside local." [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We show that when a single media content distributor (such as a television cable company or an Internet provider) delivers advertising messages on behalf of multiple competing brands, it can sometimes utilize customized advertising to implement monopoly pricing. Even though such monopolistic pricing can be implemented with varying degrees of customization of commercials, product revenues and consumer surplus are highest when the distributor chooses the highest level of customization feasible. Consumers would, obviously, prefer aggressive price competition in product markets. However, given that collusion on prices is facilitated anyway, when the distributor acts as a common agent, the welfare of consumers is enhanced when commercials are better aligned with their preferences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay explores the issues implicated by entertainment vehicles created solely to spotlight specific advertisers. From the contemporary exemplar of this paradigm in the highly successful 1990-1998 "Sophisticated Taste" campaign for Taster's Choice® instant coffee, in which viewers watched the sparks fly between the characters of Tony and Sharon in a continuing series of ads that functioned as television programming across multiple media platforms, to the most recent incarnation in advergames, online computer games that promote brands, this study considers the nature and implications of perhaps the ultimate evolution of product placement and blurring of the lines between entertainment and commercial persuasion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A considerable body of research makes cross-cultural comparisons of advertising content and executional factors. Much of this work compares very different cultures. This study compared the strategic elements found in television commercials that have received industry recognition for effectiveness in two similar cultures, the USA and Australia. The study found that effective messages were similar in terms of selling propositions, tone and positive versus negative appeals. Specifically, the messages were similar in terms of their emphasis on product attributes and performance and a heavy reliance on humour. Effective campaigns differed in their creative strategy, rational versus emotional appeals and the presence of a brand-differentiating message. It is suggested that the differences in advertising arose from differences in the marketplace and cultural environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discusses the sociological relevance of nostalgia and its usefulness as a means of achieving advertising objectives. Analysis of the frequency and types of nostalgic elements in a sampling of television commercials from ABC, CBS and NBC; Possible explanations for use of nostalgia by advertisers of particular product categories, such as food and beverages; Research questions; Study method.

This inquiry analyzed the extent to which television commercials used mature models, relative to younger models. It also analyzed the extent to which commercials portrayed the elderly in a favorable or an unfavorable manner. The study used content analysis to test twelve hypotheses. The authors arrived at conclusions relating to the depiction of mature individuals in television commercials and set forth various recommendations to advertisers, based on the analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses how the study called "How Television Advertising Works" was used to develop "guiding principles'" for managing television advertising program of Frito-Lay Inc. and how it has set priorities for its advertising campaigns. Because of the study, some television advertising principles were established like: always advertise against "news" for smaller brands; acknowledge that advertising on big brands, especially if not associated with "news," is unlikely to drive sales increases directly; because ad effects occur fast and last long, it is feasible to "rotate" ad support for key brands on the basis of (1) availability of news, (2) prior year brand performance, and, (3) split-cable test results.

Advertising prescription drugs directly to the public is a marketing strategy currently being considered by several manufacturers. However, direct-to-consumer advertising is discouraged because federal regulations mandate extensive disclosure of product risks within television commercials. An experimental sturdy of 676 subjects was performed to examine the impact of risk disclosure variations in television commercials on awareness and knowledge of both the warnings and the promotional messages. The amount, specificity, and format of risk information contained in the ads was varied while the promotional message remained constant Results indicated a ‘trade-off’ in risk/benefit communications. Risk disclosures that produced greater risk awareness and knowledge also reduced promotional message awareness and knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research innovations based upon electronic advances have increased the ability of manufacturers and marketers to assess the effectiveness of television advertising. Three services for conducting field experiments of television advertising effectiveness are BehaviorScan, provided by Information Resources Inc.; AdTel, provided by SAMI/Burke; and ERIM, provided by A.C. Nielsen. Each of these research services examines the sales effects of television advertising rather than the intermediate effects of changes in product awareness or purchase intentions. This report describes and compares these research services and also discusses how field experiments provide strong evidence concerning the effects of television advertising. Electronic innovation is dramatically altering the way advertising and market research is conducted. Analyses of advertising effectiveness that were once time-consuming and difficult are now becoming routine. One especially important research innovation is commercial services to test sales effects of television advertising. These research facilities were previously dual or split cable systems designed to televise different commercials in different groups of households in the same community. The designs and technologies of current systems are appreciably more sophisticated.

The article presents an editorial that looks at changes in the advertising role of media. Upon the invention of radio as a mass communication medium, some experts believed advertising in print would come to an end. The author contends that while print advertising growth has slowed, it is still utilized. A similar situation has come up with the advent of television. Many believe it will bring about the end of advertising on the radio and in print, with which the author disagrees.

An illustrative example is developed from an actual application of goal programming to media planning over a period of time. These goals involve distributions of frequencies by demographic and other characteristics as well as budget and other constraining limitations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]