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When cognitive and educational tests are administered under time limits, tests may become speeded and this may affect the reliability and validity of the resulting test scores. Prior research has shown that time limits may create or enlarge gender gaps in cognitive and academic testing. On average, women complete fewer items than men when a test is administered with a strict time limit, whereas gender gaps are frequently reduced when time limits are relaxed. In this study, we propose that gender differences in test strategy might inflate gender gaps favoring men, and relate test strategy to stereotype threat effects under which women underperform due to the pressure of negative stereotypes about their performance. First, we applied a Bayesian two-dimensional item response theory (IRT) model to data obtained from two registered reports that investigated stereotype threat in mathematics, and estimated the latent correlation between underlying test strategy (here, completion factor, a proxy for working speed) and mathematics ability. Second, we tested the gender gap and assessed potential effects of stereotype threat on female test performance. We found a positive correlation between the completion factor and mathematics ability, such that more able participants dropped out later in the test. We did not observe a stereotype threat effect but found larger gender differences on the latent completion factor than on latent mathematical ability, suggesting that test strategies affect the gender gap in timed mathematics performance. We argue that if the effect of time limits on tests is not taken into account, this may lead to test unfairness and biased group comparisons, and urge researchers to consider these effects in either their analyses or study planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The aim of this study was to assess associations of various content areas of Twitter posts with help-seeking from the US National Suicide Prevention Lifeline (Lifeline) and with suicides. Methods: We retrieved 7,150,610 suicide-related tweets geolocated to the United States and posted between 1 January 2016 and 31 December 2018. Using a specially devised machine-learning approach, we categorized posts into content about prevention, suicide awareness, personal suicidal ideation without coping, personal coping and recovery, suicide cases and other. We then applied seasonal autoregressive integrated moving average analyses to assess associations of tweet categories with daily calls to the US National Suicide Prevention Lifeline (Lifeline) and suicides on the same day. We hypothesized that coping-related and prevention-related tweets are associated with greater help-seeking and potentially fewer suicides. Results: The percentage of posts per category was 15.4% (standard deviation: 7.6%) for awareness, 13.8% (standard deviation: 9.4%) for prevention, 12.3% (standard deviation: 9.1%) for suicide cases, 2.4% (standard deviation: 2.1%) for suicidal ideation without coping and 0.8% (standard deviation: 1.7%) for coping posts. Tweets about prevention were positively associated with Lifeline calls (B = 1.94, SE = 0.73, p = 0.008) and negatively associated with suicides (B = −0.11, standard error = 0.05, p = 0.038). Total number of tweets were negatively associated with calls (B = −0.01, standard error = 0.0003, p = 0.007) and positively associated with suicide, (B = 6.4 × 10−5, standard error = 2.6 × 10−5, p = 0.015). Conclusion: This is the first large-scale study to suggest that daily volume of specific suicide-prevention-related social media content on Twitter corresponds to higher daily levels of help-seeking behaviour and lower daily number of suicide deaths. Preregistration: As Predicted, #66922, 26 May 2021. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The suicides of Kate Spade and Anthony Bourdain, two major American icons, in a span of days in June 2018 represent a unique and tragic natural experiment to characterize associations with actual suicides in the aftermath of celebrity suicides. The aim of this study was to identify changes in suicide counts after their deaths. Methods: Suicide data were obtained from the United States' Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's public-use mortality file. A time-series analysis was performed, examining monthly suicide data by age group (⩽19, 20–44, 45–64 and ⩾65 years), for both men and women, for all suicide methods and for hanging versus non-hanging methods, from January 1999 to December 2018. Seasonal autoregressive integrated moving-average models were fitted to the pre-June 2018 period, estimating suicides in subsequent months and identifying deviations from expected values. The volume of Twitter posts about Kate Spade and Anthony Bourdain was used as a proxy of societal attention. Results: Tweets about the celebrities were mainly concentrated in June 2018 and faded quickly in July. Total suicides exceeded the 95% confidence interval for June and approximated the upper limit of the 95% confidence interval in July. Over this 2-month span, there were 418 (95% confidence interval = [184, 652]) more suicides than expected, including 275 (95% confidence interval = [79, 471]) excess suicides in men and 182 (95% confidence interval = [93, 271]) in women. These equate to 4.8%, 4.1% and 9.1% increases above expected counts. There were 392 (95% confidence interval = [271, 514]) excess suicides by hanging, a 14.5% increase, with no significant increase in all other methods combined. Conclusion and Relevance: These findings demonstrate that mortality following celebrity suicides can occur at a similar magnitude to that observed for other public health emergencies. They underscore the urgency for interventions to mitigate imitation effects after celebrity suicide reporting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, the question whether personal suicidality is reflected in individual music preferences has been discussed. We assessed associations of preferred music genres and cumulative exposure to and rating of 50 preselected songs, including 25 suicide-related songs, with suicide risk factors in an online survey with 943 participants. Preferences for sad music were associated with high psychoticism, while fanship of music genres with predominantly joyful contents was linked to low psychoticism. There was a dose-response relationship of positive rating of suicide songs with high life satisfaction and low hopelessness. Music preferences partly reflect suicide risk factors, but enjoyment of suicide songs is negatively associated with risk factors of suicide, which may indicate a psychological defense mechanism against suicidal impulses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Across 177 countries around the world, the Failed State Index, a measure of state vulnerability, was reliably negatively associated with the estimates of national intelligence. Psychometric analysis of the Failed State Index, compounded of 12 social, economic, and political indicators, suggested factorial unidimensionality of this index. The observed correspondence of higher national intelligence figures to lower state vulnerability might arise through these two macro-level variables possibly being proxies of even more pervasive historical and societal background variables that affect both. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Empathy (E) scale has been proposed as a theoretically and psychometrically more satisfying alternative to existing self-report measures of empathy. Its four scales (facets) cover both components (cognitive vs. emotional) and both reality statuses (fictitious vs. real-life) of empathy in pairwise combinations. Confirmatory factor analyses of the E-scale in an Austrian community sample (N = 794) suggested that one prior assumption, namely the mutual orthogonality of these facets, may partly need revision; particularly, the E-scale facets seemed to reflect more strongly differences in the reality statuses than in the components of empathy. Utilizing numerous informative psychological traits, the scale's convergent and discriminant validity were examined. E-scale scores were consistently predicted by sex-related and relationship-related constructs and measures of antisocial attitudes and behavior. Among the Big Five personality dimensions, openness emerged as a major positive correlate of empathy. Sex and age were demographic correlates of E-scale scores (higher in women and the younger). Findings were discussed with regards to the definition and measurement of empathy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Across the 10 westerly and 6 easterly states of Germany, better-than-average school-end grades, taken as a proxy for intelligence, corresponded to higher regional suicide rates. This finding adds to similar evidence from other countries (Austria, Belarus, British Isles, Denmark, Netherlands, and USA), suggestive of positive ecologic (group-level) associations between indicators for cognitive ability and suicide prevalence, whilst offsetting prior inconclusive evidence for Germany from Voracek (2006) on the same question. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extending cross-national and intranational studies on possible aggregate-level associations between personality dimensions and suicide prevalence, this study examined the associations of the Big Five personality factors and suicide rates across 32 regions of the Russian Federation. Failing to replicate one key finding of similar geographic studies, namely, a correspondence of higher suicide rates with lower Agreeableness and Conscientiousness (i.e., higher Psychoticism) scores, higher suicide rates corresponded to higher Agreeableness scores. This effect was obtained with one available data source (regional-level Big Five ratings based on the National Character Survey), but not with another (based on the NEO-PI-R measure). All in all, regional suicide rates across Russia were dissociated from regional variation in personality dimensions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Even small group-mean differences (whether combined with variance differences or not) or variance differences alone (absent mean differences) can generate marked and sometimes surprising imbalances in the representation of the respective groups compared in the distributional tail regions. Such imbalances in group representation, quantified as tail ratios, have general importance in the context of any threshold, susceptibility, diathesis-stress, selection, or similar models (including the study of sex differences), as widely conceptualized and applied in the psychological, social, medical, and biological sciences. However, commonly used effect-size measures, such as Cohen's d, largely exploit data information around the center of distributions, rather than from the tails, thereby missing potentially important patterns found in the tail regions. This account reviews the background and history of tail ratios, emphasizes their importance for psychological research, proposes a consensus approach for defining and interpreting them, introduces a tail-ratio calculator, and outlines future research agenda. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Voracek (2009) reported that suicide rates in the American states were negatively associated with the mean neuroticism scores of residents in those states. In the present study, state rates of suicidal ideation and attempted suicide were not found to be associated with any state scores for the Big Five personality traits, suggesting that lethal and non-lethal suicidal behavior may have different ecological correlates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stöber's Social Desirability Scale (SDS-17) was examined psychometrically in 5 samples (N = 2,817) from Austria, Canada, and the USA. Rasch and Mokken scaling analyses attested the SDS-17 is not strictly unidimensional. Age, agreeableness, and conscientiousness were notable positive correlates of SDS-17 scores. There were signs of non-normal score distributions, acquiescence bias, and sex and country differences (higher scores among Austrians than North Americans). Items with higher ratings of social desirability according to previous research were particularly prone to show sex effects. The SDS-17 appears suitable in crosscultural settings, but may benefit from substituting its true-false response format with a rating-scale format. A formative-indicators view regarding the social desirability construct and the SDS-17 is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a study which examined the total and gender-specific suicide rates in the national and expatriate population in Dubai. The study also described the socio-demographic characteristics of suicide victims. Study authors found that suicide victims are commonly male, older than 30 years, expatriate and with an education of secondary school level and below.

This study examined differences between tattooed and non-tattooed individuals on a range of personality and individual difference measures. A community sample of 540 individuals from the southern German-speaking area of central Europe completed a survey consisting of measures of the Big Five personality factors, Need for Uniqueness, Self-esteem, sensation seeking, Religious and Spiritual Beliefs, Attitudes Toward Tattoos, tattoo possession, and demographics. Preliminary analyses showed that 22% of the total sample possessed at least one tattoo. Further analyses showed that, compared with non-tattooed (n = 420) individuals, tattooed participants (n = 120) had significantly higher scores on Extraversion, Experience Seeking, Need for Uniqueness, and held more positive Attitudes Toward Tattoos, although effect sizes of these group differences were generally small- to medium-sized. These results are considered in relation to the contemporary prevalence of tattoos in socioeconomically developed societies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fourteen years of biographical time-series data were analyzed quantitatively retrospectively using the historiometric approach. The data were descriptions of self-recorded daily working hours for one academic researcher's career and life. The researcher's unexpected death was preceded by a notable decline in daily working hours and conference travels commencing two years before. Well-known calendar effects (week and academic year) as well as effects of increased academic rank and duties on working hours were all discernible in these unobtrusive data. However, effort (total working hours) did not predict concurrent or near-future research output, even when teaching load was controlled for. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Individuals like their name letters more than non-name letters. This effect has been termed the Name Letter Effect (NLE) and is widely exploited to measure implicit (i.e. automatic, unconscious) self-esteem, predominantly by means of the Initial Preference Task (IPT). Methodological research on how to best administer the IPT is, however, scarce. In order to bridge this gap, the present paper assessed the advantages and disadvantages of different types of IPT administrations with two meta-analyses ( k = 49; N = 11,514) and a follow-up experiment ( N = 449). As a result, a new type of administration is recommended which (1) treats the effects of the first and the last name initials separately, (2) uses a duplicate administration for reliability reasons, (3) uses the likability as well as the attractiveness item wording and (4) exploits not only letters but also numbers (i.e. birthday number effect) to measure implicit self-esteem. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Implicit Association Test (IAT ) provides a relative measure of implicit association strengths between target and attribute categories. In contrast, the Single Category Implicit Association Test (SC-IAT ) measures association strength with a single attribute category. This can be advantageous if a complementary category--as used in the IAT --cannot be composed or is undesired. If the SC-IAT is to be a meaningful supplement to the IAT , it should meet the same requirements. In an online experiment with a large and heterogeneous sample, the fakability of both implicit measures was investigated when measuring anxiety. Both measures were fakable through specific instruction (e.g., "Slow down your reactions") but unfakable through nonspecific faking instruction even though nonspecific instruction was given immediately before the critical blocks (e.g., "Alter your reaction times"). When comparing the methodological quality of both implicit measures, the SC-IAT had lower internal consistency than the IAT . Moreover, with specific faking instructions, the SC-IAT was possible to fake to a larger extent than the IAT . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

320 adults rated 48 counterproductive workplace behaviors (CWBs) on a 9-point scale, from petty to serious offense, and also completed the Just World Beliefs scale. Ratings of the seriousness of the CWBs indicated consider- ' able variability in perceptions, with theft and physical violence rated most strongly. A factor analysis yielded five interpretable factors. Older participants were more likely to rate as more serious all counterproductive workplace behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated handedness and drawing by preschoolers. An observational method for repeated measurement of hand preference is presented. A sample of 381 children (191 girls, 190 boys) ranging in age from 48 to 71 mo. was tested for drawing and hand preference on 14 tasks. Consistent hand preference was defined as always using a particular hand (left or right) for the same task. Girls with consistent hand preference showed better drawing scores compared to girls with inconsistent hand preference. The results showed the importance of a reliable method for measuring hand preference within a single task as early as preschool age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of sex and personality traits on self-estimates of intelligence were examined in a sample of 302 Austrian adults (143 men, 159 women). Confirming previous research, men had higher self-estimates of logical and spatial abilities than did women, and these differences were partly explained in terms of women's higher Neuroticism scores. Neuroticism (negatively) and Openness (positively) accounted significantly for variances in self-estimates of spatial and logical intelligence. However, sex had stronger direct and indirect effects on self-estimates of intelligence. Sex and personality effects appear to be largely independent. Thus, being male, emotionally stable, and open to new experiences is likely to result in higher self-estimates of spatial and logical abilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study examined the prevalence and acceptance of body piercings and tattoos among a community sample from the southern German-speaking area of Central Europe. A total of 440 respondents completed information about their own body piercings and tattoos and reported whether they would be likely never to have piercings and tattoos in the future. Analyses indicated that 19.8 and 15.2% of respondents had piercings (excluding the earlobe) and tattoos, respectively. Women were more likely to have body piercings than men, but there were no sex differences in tattooing. There were also few sociodemographic differences in piercings and tattoos, and most participants reported being likely to consider body art in the future. These results are considered in relation to prevalence estimates of body art in other Western countries and the associated health risks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sexually differentiated digit ratios of the hand (2D:4D and other) are currently widely studied, owing to their presumed role as a retrospective diagnostic window into prenatal androgen action. This study was only the second one (following McFadden & Shubel, 2002) to examine all 6 possible finger-length ratios (excluding the thumb) and all 10 possible toe-length ratios (including the big toe). Data from a sample of 59 male and 69 female Austrian adults (M age =27 yr., SD = 7.9) were collected. Replicating the prior study, the majority of toe-length ratios exhibited significant sex differences, which was similar to finger-length ratios, but of weaker effect size. Ipsilateral correlations of toe-length and finger-length ratios were largely absent, except for those of corresponding or adjacent length ratios of the right body side among women. However, these associations were directionally opposite, such that among women, feminized finger-length ratios corresponded to masculinized toe-length ratios. Foot preference (among both sexes) and wearing of toe rings (among women) were not correlates of toe-length ratios. Discussed are implications of these findings for digit ratio research, along with ideas for further inquiry on this topic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Replicating the majority finding from prior related studies of European countries, regional IQ estimates and suicide rates in Italy were positively correlated; the association was retained with application of controls for regional affluence. Directions for further inquiry into aggregate-level associations of cognitive-ability indicators and suicide risk within nations are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Findings regarding within-sex associations of digit ratio (2D:4D), a putative pointer to long-lasting effects of prenatal androgen action, and sexually differentiated personality traits have generally been inconsistent or unreplicable, suggesting that effects in this domain, if any, are likely small. In contrast to evidence from Wilson's important 1983 study, a forerunner of modern 2D:4D research, two recent studies in 2005 and 2008 by Freeman, et al. and Hampson, et a!. showed assertiveness, a presumably male-typed personality trait, was not associated with 2D:4D; however, these studies were clearly statistically underpowered. Hence this study examined this question anew, based on a large sample of 491 men and 627 women. Assertiveness was only modestly sexually differentiated, favoring men, and a positive correlate of age and education and a negative correlate of weight and Body Mass Index among women, but not men. Replicating the two prior studies, 2D:4D was throughout unrelated to assertiveness scores. This null finding was preserved with controls for correlates of assertiveness, also in nonparametric analysis and with tests for curvilinear relations. Discussed are implications of this specific null finding, now replicated in a large sample, for studies of 2D:4D and personality in general and novel research approaches to proceed in this field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

320 Viennese adult participants (47.5% female) in a population sample completed two questionnaires measuring just world beliefs that were scored separately for just and unjust world beliefs. The study aimed to investigate the role of sex and age, as well as religious and political beliefs on just and unjust world beliefs. Older males who identified with a more left-wing political orientation tended to have lower scores on just world beliefs on Rubin and Peplau's scale, while better educated people tended to score lower on the unjust world subscale on both scales, although both predictors explained less than 6% of the variance in scores. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a scarcity of evidence pertaining to the general public's perception of public sector pay. Hence, in the present study, 161 women and 149 men were asked to estimate the wages 35 public sector professions should receive annually in the fictitious nation of Maldoria, based on a comparison value of an annual income of T10,000 for general practitioners. Analysis showed that only pilots were given a higher annual income than general practitioners; miners and local government workers were also provided with relatively high annual incomes. By contrast, newscasters were provided with the lowest annual income. Participants' sex did not affect these evaluations, and other demographic variables and public sector-related information of the participants were poor predictors of their evaluations. The implications of this research on public attitudes toward wage determination are discussed, and avenues for further research highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Partly replicating findings from several cross-national studies (of Lester and of Voracek) on possible aggregate-level associations between personality and suicide prevalence, state-level analysis within the United States yielded significantly negative associations between the Big Five factor of Neuroticism and suicide rates. This effect was observed for historical as well as contemporary suicide rates of the total or the elderly population and was preserved with controls for the four other Big Five factors and measures of state wealth. Also conforming to cross-national findings, the Big Five factors of Agreeableness and Extraversion were negatively, albeit not reliably, associated with suicide rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A scientometric analysis of modern research on the second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D), a widely studied putative marker for prenatal androgen action, is presented. In early 2009, this literature totalled more than 300 publications and, since its initiation in 1998, has grown at a rate slightly faster than linear. Key findings included evidence of publication bias and citation bias, incomplete coverage and outdatedness of existing reviews, and a dearth of meta-analyses in this field. 2D:4D research clusters noticeably in terms of researchers, institutions, countries, and journals involved. Although 2D:4D is an anthropometric trait, most of the research has been conducted at psychology departments, not anthropology departments. However, 2D:4D research has not been predominantly published in core and specialized journals of psychology, but rather in more broadly scoped journals of the behavioral sciences, biomedical social sciences, and neurosciences. Total citation numbers of 2D:4D papers for the most part were not larger than their citation counts within 2D:4D research, indicating that until now, only a few 2D:4D studies have attained broader interest outside this specific field. Comparative citation analyses show that 2D:4D research presently is commensurate in size and importance to evolutionary psychological jealousy research, but has grown faster than the latter field. In contrast, it is much smaller and has spread more slowly than research about the Implicit Association Test. Fifteen conjectures about anticipated trends in 2D:4D research are outlined, appendixed by a first-time bibliography of the entirety of the published 2D:4D literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary-Digit ratios, such as the frequently studied second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D), are already sexually differentiated in utero, postnatally fairly stable, and thus commonly held as possible markers for prenatal androgen levels. Based on six independent samples, totaling 381 male and 420 female subjects from different age bands, this study investigated the magnitude and cross-sample consistency of sex differences in all six possible digit ratios (2D:3D, 2D:4D, 2D:5D, 3D:4D, 3D:5D, 4D:5D) and in four novel relative finger-length measures (the ratio of a given finger to the sum of all four fingers) that were recently suggested by Loehlin, Medland, and Martin as possibly superior to digit ratios for discriminating between the sexes. However, based on the magnitude of sex effects and observed measurement repeatabilities, these novel measures were not superior to digit ratios. Across samples, among digit ratios the traditionally used 2D:4D never yielded the largest sex effect, 2D:5D was the most and 2D:3D the least sexually differentiated. Sex differences were generally larger for digit ratios calculated from nonadjacent than from adjacent fingers. Compared with females, males' relative finger length was clearly lower for 2D, somewhat lower for 3D, somewhat higher for 4D, and clearly higher for 3D. This gradient suggests mediolaterally arranged developmental fields that act sexually differentiated on fingerlength expression. Implications of these findings for further digit ratio research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past decade, the second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D), a putative biomarker for the organizational (permanent) effects of prenatal androgens on the human brain, body, and behavior, has received extensive research attention in psychology. This account makes more widely accessible the contributions of the German psychologist, Hans-Dieter Rösler, an early, for a long time unnoticed, predecessor of modern 2D:4D research. In the mid-1950s, Rösler collected a massive sample of hand outline drawings, totalling nearly 7,000 individuals, ranging in age from 1 mo. to 70 yr. With regard to the distal finger-extent pattern, Rösler differcntiated radial (longer index than ring finger), ulnar (reversed pattern), and intermediate hand types, which reflect higher (more female-typical), lower (more male-typical), and intermediate 2D:4D, respectively. Here is summarized Rösler's research. In a series of investigations into the hand types, he reported on their anatomical bases, unsuitability for paternity testing, developmental changes, heritability, sex, side, and occupational group differences, and associations with left-handedness, manual dexterity, mental retardation, and clinodactyly. Based on new data from 313 male and 316 female adults, hand type is further shown to be only a weak proxy of actual 2D:4D, leaving 75% of the interindividual variation in 2D:4D unexplained. Notwithstanding these shortcomings of the hand-type method, Rösler's work from the 1950s still has the potential to inform modern 2D:4D research, as it contains a multitude of testable hypotheses not yet picked up by current research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nonpaternity (i.e., discrepant biological versus social fatherhood) affects many issues of interests to psychologists, including familial dynamics, interpersonal relationships, sexuality, and fertility, and therefore represents an important topic for psychological research. The advent of modern contraceptive methods, particularly the market launch of the birth-control pill in the early 1960s and its increased use ever since, should have affected rates of nonpaternity (i.e., discrepant genetic and social fatherhood). This cross-temporal mets-analysis investigated whether there has been a recent decline in nonpaternity rates in the western industrialized nations. The eligible database comprised 32 published samples unbiased towards nonpaternity for which nonoverlapping data from more than 24,000 subjects from nine (mostly Anglo-Saxon heritage) countries with primarily Caucasian populations are reported. Publication years ranged from 1932 to 1999, and estimated years of the reported nonpaternity events (i.e., the temporal occurrence of nonpaternity) ranged from 1895 to 1993. In support of the hypothesis, weighted meta-regression models showed a significant decrease (r=-.4 1) of log-transformed nonpaternity rates with publication years and also a decrease, albeit not significant (r=-.17), with estimated years of nonpaternity events. These results transform into an estimated absolute decline in untransformed nonpaternity rates of 0.83% and 0.91% per decade, respectively. Across studies, the mean (and median) nonpaternity rate was 3.1% (2.1%). This estimate is consistent with estimates of 2 to 3% from recent reviews on the topic that were based on fewer primary studies. This estimate also rebuts the beliefs and hearsay data widespread among both the public and researchers which contend nonpaternity rates in modern populations might be as high as about 10%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The associations of digit ratio (2D:4D), a likely marker for prenatal androgen exposure, and absolute finger length, a likely marker for postnatal androgen exposure, with self-reports on three Pavlovian temperament dimensions (strength of excitation, strength of inhibition, and mobility of nervous processes) were investigated in a sample of 84 men and 114 women. In men, left-hand 2D:4D was weakly, but significantly, negatively associated with strength of inhibition, and also weakly negatively, but not significantly, associated with the two other temperament dimensions. These effects were absent for men's right-hand 2D:4D. Finger lengths of both hands in men were weakly, but significantly, positively associated with mobility of nervous processes scores. All associations for women were negligible. Both prenatal and postnatal androgen action may contribute to small amounts of individual differences in Pavlovian temperament dimensions in men but apparently not in women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Twin and family study findings indicate a substantial heritability of digit ratio (2D:4D), a putative marker for the masculinizing effects of prenatal androgen exposure. Functional polymorphisms of the X-linked androgen receptor gene, i.e., androgen sensitivity, contribute somewhat to the expression of 2D:4D in men, but otherwise the genetics of 2D:4D is unknown. This study investigated differences in 2D:4D by self-reported ABO blood type and Rhesus factor, two easily collectible genetic traits, in two samples (combined N= 1,273). Effects of blood groups on 2D:4D were small and not significant in all tests in both samples; however, two consistent patterns emerged across samples. Of the ABO types, AB had the lowest right-hand 2D:4D, the highest left-hand 2D:4D, and the lowest right-minus-left difference in 2D:4D, and Rhesus factor Rh- had higher left-hand 2D:4D and lower right-minus-left difference in 2D:4D than Rh+. If replicable, this may suggest genes contributing to the expression of 2D:4D reside in the vicinity of the gene loci (chromosomal locations: 9q34.2 and 1p36.11) of these blood groups or pleiotropic effects of the blood-group genes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Patterns of directional asymmetry in the length of index and ring finger (2D and 4D) may be sexually differentiated. Martin, Puts, and Breedlove (2008) found leftward bias, i.e., both a longer 2D and 4D in the left than in the right hand, more frequently in men, whereas rightward bias occurred more frequently in women. Further, rightward vs leftward bias seemed a substantial source of variation in digit ratio (2D:4D), a putative marker for prenatal androgen levels. Given the generally small effects, unreplicable results, and inconsistent findings of 2D:4D research, these findings potentially are important as the type of directional digit asymmetry could moderate or obfuscate real associations between 2D:4D and target traits. Based on six samples totaling about 3,000 individuals, the present study replicated the first finding of Martin, Puts, and Breedlove (2008): leftward bias was more frequent among men and rightward bias more frequent among women. This sex effect was small. However, the present study did not replicate the second finding of Martin, et al. (2008): relative to participants' sex the contributions of leftward vs rightward asymmetry to individual variation in 2D:4D were smaller by orders of magnitude and not significant. Implications of these findings for 2D:4D research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Different methods for measuring the second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D), a putative marker for prenatal androgen exposure, may lead to varying values of 2D:4D. Specifically, it has been hypothesized that fingertip fat pads may be differentially deformed when taking palm images (photocopies or flatbed scans), but not when fingers are measured directly, thus yielding lower 2D:4D values from image-based measurements rather than direct ones. A measurement protocol for fingertip size is unavailable, as are data on finger and sex differences in this trait. Introducing such a protocol, this study found very large finger differences in adult fingertip size (largest for 4D, smaller for 3D and 5D, smallest for 2D), large side differences (larger in the left than in the right hand of right-handed subjects), but only small and not significant sex differences. Fingertip size was unrelated to image-based 2D:4D measurements, suggesting that fingertip size and the extent of finger and sex differences there- in are unlikely to explain discrepant 2D:4D values obtained from image-based versus direct measurements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although there is extensive literature regarding sex differences in jealousy due to infidelity, guilt resulting from infidelity remains unexplored. We hypothesize that men will feel guiltier from imagined emotional rather than sexual infidelity, as it is most important for their partner's reproductive success. Similarly, we predict that women will feel more guilt from imagined sexual rather than emotional infidelity. The findings indicate a different pattern; men feel guiltier following sexual infidelity, whereas women feel guiltier following emotional infidelity. Results also show that both sexes believe their partners would have a more difficult time forgiving sexual, rather than emotional, infidelity, but women and not men report that sexual infidelity would more likely lead to relationship dissolution. These findings are discussed in view of evolved mating strategies and individual reproductive success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the emergence of twin studies in the 1920s, time and again the question of possible twin-singleton differences in intelligence has been posed. This study addressed the issue through a meta-analyais of published studies on this theme. Twins on the average seem to have lower IQs than singletons. The best estimate for this group difference is 4.2 IQ points (less than one-third of a standard deviation), with a great divide between study outcomes of less vs more recent birth cohorts (5.1 vs 05 IQ points, respectively). The evidence is based on studies from six countries (including population-based ones of entire birth cohorts), a massive database (comparisons of more than 30,000 twins with nearly 1.6 million singletons), a variety of intelligence tests, and birth cohorts spanning most of the 20th century, but, for the most part, on an age range limited to children and adolescents. The effect shows considerable between-study heterogeneity but appears robust (fail-safe N calculations), not due to influential individual studies (sensitivity analysis) or publication bias, was present since the very first published studies (cumulative meta-analysis), and appears generaliz. able across sex, zygosity, and other intelligence domains beyond the verbal. There are insufficient data as to whether the effect persists over the lifespan, exists as well within families, or has ceased in recent birth cohorts of highly developed countries (Denmark and The Netherlands). Likely causes of the effect appear to be prenatal and peri-natal factors (reduced fetal growth and shorter gestation for twins). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Digit ratio (2D:4D), a putative marker for prenatal androgen levels, and absolute finger length, a marker for pubertal androgen action, were not associated with wearing of wedding rings in a sample of 150 male and 199 female married individuals. This failure to replicate associations previously reported by Manning was true for both men and women, self-reported and spousal ring-wearing behavior, and one's own and spousal 2D:4D or absolute finger lengths. Supplemental findings included sex differences and age effects in the prevalence of wearing wedding rings (more frequent in women and the younger than in men and the older) and a sex bias when ring-wearing behavior within couples was discordant (men more frequently did not wear their wedding ring when their wives did than vice versa). Discussed are implications of the current findings and directions for future research into possible associations of 2D:4D with other aspects of body ornamentation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study integrates, refines, and updates previous findings pertaining to positive ecologic (population-level) associations between intelligence and suicide prevalence across nations by using corrected and revised national IQ estimates and, further, a quality-of-human-conditions index, both recently published by Lynn and Vanhanen. Across a global 85-nation sample of sex-specific total suicide rates and a Eurasian 48-nation sample of sex-specific elderly suicide rates, these were positively associated with updated national IQ estimates. The associations were stronger for the general population than for elderly persons, independent of the quality of human conditions, and notedly stronger in exponential fitting of suicide rates with national IQ than in linear fitting, thereby indicating that shifts or differences in national IQ correspond to proportional, not absolute, changes in suicide rates. Implications of these findings and the question of generalizabiity of such associations to the individual level are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Subjective estimates and associated confidence ratings for the solutions of some classic occupancy problems were studied in samples of 721 psychology undergraduates, 39 casino visitors, and 34 casino employees. On tasks varying the classic birthday problem, i.e., the probability P for any coincidence among N individuals sharing the same birthday, clear majorities of respondents markedly overestimated N, given P, and markedly underestimated P, given N. Respondents did notedly better on tasks varying the birthmate problem, i.e., P for the specific coincidence among N individuals of having a birthday today. Psychology students and women did better on both task types, but were less confident about their estimates than casino visitors or personnel and men. Several further person variables, such as indicators of topical knowledge and familiarity, were associated with better and more confident performance on birthday problems, but not on birthmate problems. Likewise, higher confidence ratings were related to subjective estimates that were closer to the solutions of birthday problems, but not of birthmate problems. Implications of and possible explanations for these findings, study limitations, directions for further inquiry, and the real-world relevance of ameliorating misconceptions of probability are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is evidence for widespread disbelief in the genetics of suicide, despite recent research progress in this area and convergent evidence supporting a role for genetic factors. This study analyzed the beliefs held in 8 samples (total N = 1224) of various types (psychology, medical, and various undergraduates, psychology graduates, and the general population) from 6 countries located on 3 continents (Austria, Canada, Malaysia, Romania, United Kingdom, and the USA). Endorsement rates for the existence of genetic risk factors for suicide ranged from 26% and 30% (Austrian psychology undergraduates and general population) to around 50% (psychology undergraduates in the USA and United Kingdom). In the 8 samples, respondents' sex, age, religiosity, political orientation, and other demographic variables were, for the most part, unrelated, but overall knowledge about suicide throughout was related positively to endorsement rates. Consistent with previous research, across a considerable variety of sample types and cultural settings there was no evidence for a clear majority believing in genetic bases for suicide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Genetic contributions to suicide are increasingly recognized. This study further validated the novel 22-item Beliefs in the Inheritance of Risk Factors for Suicide Scale (BIRFSS), which assesses individuals' beliefs about the genetics of suicide. Data from 155 mainly Austrian psychology undergraduates (42 men, 113 women) indicated adequate internal scale consistency and 2-mo. test-retest reliability. Scores were temporally stable and factor analysis of items yielded a dominant first factor. Scores were positively related to general beliefs about genetic determinism and to positive attitudes towards psychiatric genetic research (convergent validity), but unrelated to lay theories of suicide, locus of control, self-reported religiosity and political orientation, religious and spiritual beliefs, and social dominance orientation (discriminant validity). Effects of sex, age, and nationality (Austrian vs other) on scores were negligible. Item Statistics corresponded strongly to those obtained from administering the item sequence in reverse order. Item Statistics were strongly correlated with those observed in two previous validation studies, suggesting cross-sample robustness of the item-performance indicators of this measure. The scale shows potential for basic research and curriculum evaluation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using two new scales, this study examined beliefs in genetic determinism and attitudes towards psychiatric genetic research in student samples from Austria, Malaysia, Romania, and the United Kingdom. For both constructs, effects of culture were detectable, whereas those related to key demographics were either small and inconsistent across samples (political orientation and religiosity) or zero (Sex and age). Judged from factorial dimensionality and internal consistency, the psychometric properties of both scales were satisfactory. Belief in genetic determinism had lower prevalence and corresponded only modestly to positive attitudes towards psychiatric genetic research which had higher prevalence. The correlations of both constructs with a preference of inequality among social groups (social dominance orientation) were modest and inconsistent across samples. Both scales appear appropriate for cross-cultural applications, in particular for research into lay theories and public perceptions regarding genetic vs environmental effects on human behavior, mental disorders, and behavioral and psychiatric genetic research related to these. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

National mean scores on a historical knowledge test (taken as a proxy for intelligence), stemming from representative samples of male (and female) 9th-grade school students from 26 European countries in a 1999 report by Wilberg and Lynn, were significantly positively associated with the national male (and female) suicide rates, independent of the general quality-of-living conditions in these countries. This finding replicates previous evidence from cross-national studies (by Lester and by Voracek), of a correspondence of higher national IQ to higher suicide rates, with an alternative measure of national IQ that is independent of the national IQ estimates recently published by Lynn and Vanhanen which have been used in prior studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several contemporary cross-national and intranational geographic studies have reported positive ecological (group-level) associations of intelligence and suicide mortality. These findings are consistent with facts from suicide research and with an evolutionary view of suicidal behavior. The present research extended these accounts cross-temporally. Analysis of E. L. Thorndike's state-level personal quality scores and standardized birth rates of eminent persons, taken as proxy variables for regional intelligence, along with historical state suicide rates (1913-1924 and 1928-1932) showed that intelligence and suicide mortality across the USA were already clearly positively related during the early 20th century, suggesting time stability of the effect. Within the USA, the effect is possibly due to state differences in the ethnic composition, which correspond to both suicide rates and intelligence proxies. It is argued that the most parsimonious interpretation of these ecological findings remains that they indeed reflect individual-level effects, that a positive link between intelligence and suicide is entirely compatible with positive overall links between intelligence and health and longevity, and that the ultimate explanative background for the positive link between intelligence and suicide may be provided through the framework of Rushton's differential K theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Population rates of suicidal ideation, suicide plans or attempted suicide from three independent multinational epidemiological surveys (the WHO/EURO and WHO SUPRE-MISS studies and a third one) were not significantly associated with national IQ figures. This result conflicts with previous evidence from cross-national studies (by Lester and by Voracek) of a positive ecological correlation between level of national intelligence and rates of completed suicide. Across nations, the indicators for the prevalence of suicidal behavior also lacked close correspondence with suicide rates, which may be due to the higher unreliability of assessing covert suicidal behavior (suicide ideas, thoughts, plans, and, to a lesser extent, also suicide attempts) as compared to suicidal behavior that is indisputably overt (completed suicide). Several alternative explanations for the current nil findings are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Findings from adoption, family, geographical, immigrant, molecular genetic, surname, and twin studies suggest genetic risk factors have a role in suicidal behavior. However, related mental health literacy (knowledge and beliefs) even of future health.care professionals who will be concerned with suicide lag behind this research progress. As no scale for assessing such beliefs is available, the 22-item Beliefs in the Inheritance of Risk Factors for Suicide Scale was constructed, its contents rated by experts in a validation survey and administered to samples of 70 medical and 165 psychology students. Medical students held stronger beliefs in the genetics of suicide than psychology students. Internal scale consistency and test-retest reliability were assessed as adequate. Factor analysis of the 22 items yielded a dominant first factor. Scores were positively related to knowledge about suicide (convergent validity) but for the most part unrelated to lay theories of suicide, political orientation, religiosity, and social desirability (discriminant validity). This novel scale shows potential for assessing individuals' beliefs about the genetics of suicide. Applications may include basic research, educational contexts, and evaluation of professional training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Psychometric properties and correlates of the German form of Lester and Bean's 1992 Attribution of Causes to Suicide Scale, of 18 items tapping into lay theories of suicide (intrapsychic problems, interpersonal conflicts, and societal forces as causes), were investigated in a sample of the general population in Austria (n= 156). The three attributional dimensions presented moderate internal consistencies and the 18 items appeared to be factorially orderly, as indicated by exploratory factor analysis. Previous results were replicated, with positive interrelations among all three dimensions, but these were largely confined to men. Societal causes of suicide were significantly less frequently endorsed than intrapsychic or interpersonal causes. Respondents' sex, intelligence, and knowledge about suicide were unrelated, and scores on the Big Five personality factors and social desirability were largely unrelated to the three dimensions. Endorsing intrapsychic causes to suicide was correlated with advanced age, religiosity, and conservative political orientation, and the three dimensions entertained meaningful associations with locus of control (internality, social externality, and fatalistic externality). All observed demographic and attitudinal correlates were, however, of modest magnitude. Implications of the findings and directions for further inquiry are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]