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Deinking of Mixed Office Waste [MOW] paper was carried out by using a flotation device and adding enzymes as defibrillators. Employing the computational simulation of the molecular coupling between the cellulase enzyme obtained from Trichoderma sp. and cellulose, the enzyme-cellulose molecular complex and the main amino acids endo-β-1,4-D-glucanase of this molecule, responsible for the hydrolysis of cellulose, were obtained. Three of these amino acids were used for deinking. The deinked cellulose fibers were evaluated according to the standards of the paper industry (ISO whiteness [brightness], factor of reflectance, opacity, and tonality) to determine the efficiency of deinking. The experimental results show that the best optical characteristics of the sheets of deinked paper with amino acids are those where a mixture of aspartate, glutamate, and asparagine was applied, instead of their individual dosage. In addition to the aforesaid, the use of enzymes instead of the traditionally used reagent, such as sodium hydroxide, avoids the contamination of wastewater; additionally, the operation of the column is carried out easily, taking into consideration that the pH of the system goes from alkaline to neutral.

Heavy metals have a huge impact on the environment due to their toxicity and bioaccumulation capacity. A great variety of methods can be used to the determination. The electrochemical methods are one of the best options due to their sensitivity, selectivity, and rapidness. They are based on the use of electrochemical cells made of different materials depending on the analyte to determine. An eco-friendly cheap option that has earned big importance is paper-based electrodes, which are formed by a cellulose matrix modified with conductive inks. Carbon ink is the most used, and it can be modified with nanoparticles to increase sensitivity. Alternatively, metallic surfaces or “films” such as mercury or bismuth can improve the determination of heavy metals because of their interactions with the film. This chapter focuses on the methods to determination of heavy metals based on their affinity with different nanomaterials or films on low-cost electrode substrates.

Power transformers life is limited fundamentally by the insulation paper state, which can be analysed through different techniques such as furanic compound concentration, dissolved gases, methanol concentration, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscope, refractive index of cellulose fibres, degree of polymerisation or tensile strength. The two last techniques provide the best way to evaluate mechanical resistance of insulation paper. This chapter describes briefly the most remarkable studies about post-mortem assessment and thermal ageing tests in which mechanical properties are some of the characteristics evaluated to determine paper degradation. This work also gathers the main relationships developed until now to relate different by-products generated during transformer operation with loss of paper mechanical properties. Finally, this chapter defines the future approaches, which could be used to study paper degradation. The authors are grateful for the funding received to carry out this work from the State Scientific and Technical Research and Innovation Plan under the DPI2013-43897-P grant agreement, financed by the Government of Spain.

Recent years have seen remarkable progress in research and development of metal nanoparticles (NPs) that takes advantage of their unique optical, magnetic, electronic, catalytic and other physicochemical properties, in a wide range of practical and potential applications such as energy, environmental, biomedical and chemical engineering (Feldheim & Foss, 2002; Ma et al., 2006; Jena & Raj, 2008; Zotti et al., 2008). For example, gold (Au) is a chemically inert metallic element in bulk form; however, AuNPs possess colorful plasmon resonances useful for bio-sensing (Shukla et al., 2005; Yokota et al., 2008), and can catalyze chemical reactions (Bond et al., 2006; Ishida & Haruta, 2007), due to their quantum size effects. NPs of inexpensive base metals, such as copper (CuNPs) have recently attracted much attention as innovative nanomaterials for applications such as highly-active gas reforming catalysts for hydrogen production (Gadhe & Gupta, 2007) and effective marine antifouling coatings (Anyaogu et al., 2008). In general, however, practical utilization of nanosized materials involves considerable difficulties since metal NPs are hard to handle directly, and easily aggregate to minimize their surface area. The inevitable aggregation of metal NPs often nullifies their unique functionalities, and eventually yields ordinary bulk metals. For that reason, an area of ongoing research has focused on effective immobilization of metal NPs on easily handled supports such as porous membranes (Dotzauer et al., 2006) and nanostructured inorganic sheets (Wang et al., 2008). Of the various metal NPs, silver NPs (AgNPs) are of increasing interest because of their high conductivity (Li et al., 2005) and tunable optical responsiveness (McFarland & Van Duyne, 2003). Moreover, it is well known that Ag exhibits potent antibacterial properties with low toxicity for humans and animals by comparison with other heavy metals (Alt et al., 2004; Shah et al., 2008). Ag and Ag-compounded materials are effective for both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, whereas the efficacy of conventional antibiotics varies with the species of bacteria (Shah et al., 2008). Many researchers have recently reported that AgNPs demonstrate excellent antibacterial activity (Sondi & Salopek-Sondi, 2004; Gogoi et al., 2006; Pal et al., 2007; Navarro et al., 2008). However, effective methods for immobilization of AgNPs for practical use are insufficiently advanced, and incorporation of AgNPs into various matrices is being actively investigated. For instance, it was reported that AgNPs were synthesized on poly(ethylene glycol)-polyurethane-titanium dioxide (TiO2) films via 14

Power transformers life is limited fundamentally by the insulation paper state, which can be analysed through different techniques such as furanic compound concentration, dissolved gases, methanol concentration, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscope, refractive index of cellulose fibres, degree of polymerisation or tensile strength. The two last techniques provide the best way to evaluate mechanical resistance of insulation paper. This chapter describes briefly the most remarkable studies about post-mortem assessment and thermal ageing tests in which mechanical properties are some of the characteristics evaluated to determine paper degradation. This work also gathers the main relationships developed until now to relate different by-products generated during transformer operation with loss of paper mechanical properties. Finally, this chapter defines the future approaches, which could be used to study paper degradation.

In this chapter, we briefly introduce our recent work related to the topic of ultralight paper-based electrodes for energy applications. Herein, the ultralight paper-based counter electrodes containing commercial poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):polystyrenesulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) and homemade graphene dots (GDs) are synthesized for preparing flexible dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). Because the GDs/PEDOT:PSS composite can well fill the porosity of paper substrate, the flexible DSSC with GDs/PEDOT:PSS-coated paper electrode exhibits much higher cell efficiency than that of DSSC using paper electrode with Pt. The features of lightweight, low-cost, space-saving (high flexibility), high machinability (easy-cutting) and environmental friendly would make the GDs/PEDOT:PSS-coated paper electrodes highly potential in portable/wearable electronic applications.

Analyzing the relationship between production of wood-based products and the production of paper and its derivatives ever more often attention is paid to complementarity of the processes of production, recovery and recycling of key raw materials and finally to their value and profitability of production. In this context, two main trends in converting wood by-products are noticed: paper production and energy generation. Development of market of sawmill by-products constitutes a challenge for wood industry, which requires determination of the most efficient means of utilizing those by-products. One of the crucial criteria of making business decisions is the value of wood by-products. A method of valuation of those sawmill by-products when converted into briquettes, pellet, or energy was presented. This method allows for multilateral analysis of profitability of various means of utilizing wooden by-products, on the example of Poland. Based on comparative analysis, recommendations for wood-based industry were formulated.

This chapter explores the potentials of the alkaline peroxide pre-treated oil palm vascular bundle (oil palm waste) in the industrial production of pulp, paper and other cellulosic products like microcrystalline cellulose. Management of this escalating waste is a herculean task and creates environmental hazards hence urgent action is needed to create value out of these waste biomass. The pulp and paper industry being a large consumer of lignocellulose materials preferred the use of coniferous and deciduous trees for pulp production and papermaking because their cellulose fibres in the pulp make durable paper. In addition to this, the global population explosion and the economic development has resulted in the significant increase in demand for paper. With improvements in pulp processing technology through the use of environmental benign technology like alkaline peroxide pre-treatment it has been considered as suitable for paper pulp and other cellulose based products such as microcrystalline cellulose. Characterization of the alkaline peroxide pre-treated oil palm vascular bundles using the scanning electron microscope (SEM), Fourier transmission infra-red (FTIR) spectroscopy and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analyses confirm the micro-sized cellulose fibres. Use of these lignocellulosic materials can reduce the burden on the forest while supporting the natural biodiversity.

This chapter covers relative topics on wheat straw applied as fibrous raw materials for pulping and papermaking industry, i.e., chemical components and anatomy of wheat straw, pulping process and pulping properties, paper and paperboard products from wheat straw pulps, as well as environmental protection issues. Wheat straw is a kind of annual vascular-bundled herbal arthrophyte containing cellulose fibers that are acceptable for pulping and papermaking. The chemical components and anatomy of wheat straw were discussed; practically, soda or soda-AQ chemical pulping processes are common techniques often applied for chemical pulping from wheat straw, conventional and advanced bleaching sequences were introduced, and especially ECF and TCF bleaching techniques have been successfully applied in China’s paper mills. Cooking and black liquor extraction equipment and facilities are explained; chemi-mechanical pulping properties of wheat straw, corrugated medium, and linerboard products from wheat straw CMP pulps are evaluated; and chemical recovery from chemical cooking black liquor and effluent treatment processes are discussed. In this chapter, not only laboratory research results but also some commercial operation experiences are shared. These information and knowledge described in this chapter will help readers to have a good understanding about wheat straw pulping and papermaking; they are useful for pulping and papermaking engineer as reference for design and operation management of wheat straw pulping lines.

This study investigates alternatives that can improve the internal bond strength (IBS) of paper by pulp refining and paper press-drying (PD). The improvement mechanisms of IBS and their impact on the strength development of high-yield pulps are discussed. All experiments were conducted using a factorial design where the factors were four pulp types (one spruce thermomechanical (TMP) and three chemi-thermomechanical (CTMP) from spruce, birch, and aspen), three refining levels, three PD temperatures and three pressures. The effects of these treatments on the physical and mechanical properties of paper were studied using an analysis of variance. Refining changed the fibre surface, thereby promoting mechanical adhesion. PD temperature softened the fibres and changed their surface chemistry, while PD pressure improved the contact area between fibres. These changes led to an important improvement in IBS which explained, to a large extent, the variations in paper properties. Compared to air-dried paper, PD paper showed much higher properties for most tested pulps at all refining levels. These results were due to the increase in bonded areas. PD at 175°C substantially improved the wet tensile strength of paper due to the flow of lignin on the fibre surface, which protects the hydrogen bonds from moisture.

In this study, the characteristics of “papers cited in patents” are examined and impact indicators of them based on existing bibliometric indicators are developed. First, the nature of patent-paper citations is examined for Japanese scientific papers as the basic knowledge for developing indicators. Second, the patent-paper citation index (PPCI) indicator, which was proposed in the previous study, is revised. Third, a set of indicators, named High Feature Valued Patent-Paper Citation Index, which is based on three feature values of citing patents, is proposed. Evidence using our new indicators is presented and the tendency of patent-paper citations of Japanese three sectors such as university, public institute, and corporation is discussed. Finally, issues to be addressed are discussed.

Since the beginning of water shortage by disasters such as global warming, environmental pollution, and drought, development of original technology and studies have been undertaken to increase the availability of water resources. Among the technologies, water treatment technology using membranes has a better water quality improvement than existing physicochemical and biological processes. Moreover, it is environmental-friendly technology that does not use chemicals. Water treatment membranes are applied to various fields such as wastewater treatment, water purification, seawater desalination, ion exchange process, ultra-pure water production, and separation of organic solvents. Furthermore, water treatment technologies using membranes will increasingly expand. The core technology of the water treatment membrane is to control the size of pores for membrane performance and is being researched to improve performance. In this chapter, the frequencies of presentation are filed by country, institution, and company through technology competitiveness and evaluation of patents and papers. In addition, evaluation of technologies for wastewater treatment, water purification, seawater desalination, and ion exchange process was carried out in the same way as before. Finally, future research directions were suggested by using evaluation results.

In all cases, when a material has to be used in medical applications, the knowledge of its physical, chemical and biological properties is of fundamental significance, since the direct contact between the biological system and the considered device could generate reactions whose long-term effects must be clearly quantified. The class of materials that exhibits characteristics that allow their use for the considered applications are commonly called biomaterials. Patients suffering from different diseases generate a great demand for real therapies, where the use of biomaterials are mandatory. Commonly, metallic biomaterials are used because their structural functions; the high strength and resistance to fracture they can offer, provide reliable performance primarily in the fields of orthopedics and dentistry. In metals, because of their particular structure, plastic deformation takes place easier, inducing good formability in manufacturing. The present paper is not encyclopaedic, but reports in the first part some current literature data and perspectives about the possibility of use different class of metallic materials for medical applications, while the second part recalls some results of the current research in this field carried out by the authors.

Lithium ion batteries (LIB) and supercapacitors (electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) and lithium ion capacitors (LIC)) are the most energy storage service for mobile application. Lithium ion batteries are currently the most popular type of battery for powering portable electronic devices and are growing in popularity for defense, automotive and aerospace applications. The investigation of supercapacitors (SCs) has also achieved significant progresses. Although they have shown remarkable commercial successes, the electrodes and their constituent materials are still the subject of intensive research. Our research focused on a new type of carbon nanotube-cellulose composite materials as current collector of LIBs and as electrodes of SCs for improving and enhancing the energy/power density and cyclic performance of them. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been widely used as conductive agent for both anodes and cathodes to replace super carbon black to satisfy the multifunctional requirements for LIBs.

Graphene paper as a new form of graphene-supported nanomaterials has received worldwide attention since its first report in 2007. Due to their high flexibility, lightweight and good electrical conductivity, graphene papers have demonstrated the promising potential for crucial applications in electrochemical sensors and energy technologies among others. In this chapter, we present some examples to overview recent advances in the research and development of two-dimensional (2D) graphene papers as new materials for electrochemical sensors. The chapter covers the design, fabrication, functionalization and application evaluations of graphene papers. We first summarize the mainstream methods for fabrication of graphene papers/membranes, with the focus on chemical vapour deposition techniques and solution-processing assembly approaches. A large portion of this chapter is then devoted to the highlights of specific functionalization of graphene papers with polymer and nanoscale functional building blocks for electrochemical-sensing purposes. In terms of electrochemical-sensing applications, the emphasis is on enzyme-graphene and nanoparticle-graphene paper-based systems for the detection of glucose. We finally conclude this chapter with brief remarks and outlook.

For centuries, paper has been an important medium of information. Currently, the basic risk to the paper collection is “acidic paper” and the action of enzymes secreted by microorganisms on them. In order to ‘prolong life’ of these materials, in recent years, various chemical compounds have been used. In this chapter, ionic liquids (IL) are explored as substances for deacidification of paper and its conservation, including antifungal activity. The use of these substances in the manufacturing of paper is possible, but the ingredients play an important role. Imidazolium IL cause an increase in the pH (deacidification) of historical papers and do not cause worsening of their strength properties, but these compound can cause a colour change. Benzalkonium dl‐lactate and didecyldimethylammonium dl‐lactate and derivatives of 1,2,4‐triazole are used as effective inhibitors of growth of moulds on paper. The best antifungal activity in these ionic liquids is observed in the paper pine at a concentration of 5% and weakest in the samples from the pulp after chemical‐thermomechanical treatment. New paper impregnated with ionic liquids is characterised by an increase in tear resistance, reduction of breaking length and a favourable influence on the paper colour.

The employment of printing techniques as cost-effective methods to fabricate low cost, flexible, disposable and sustainable solar cells is intimately dependent on the substrate properties and the adequate electronic devices to be powered by them. Among such devices, there is currently a growing interest in the development of user-oriented and multipurpose systems for intelligent packaging or on-site medical diagnostics, which would greatly benefit from printable solar cells as their energy source for autonomous operation.

As a result of the 21st Conference of the Parties (CoP-21) in 2015, the Paris Agreement formally recognised the importance of finance and forests to tackle climate change. However, Article 9 of the convention calls for the leadership of developed countries in mobilising climate finance, while encouraging other parties to provide financial support voluntarily. This is rather an unstable mechanism, since it is strongly affected by political and economic hardships. Forest finance could be established instead that, just like capital markets, might allow for countries to choose between interest-bearing bonds from forest conservation (natural forests) and/or offset (forest plantations). Bonds demand comes out of carbon savings from forest conservation or offsetting forests, whereas bonds supply arises from investments giving off carbon emissions that must be avoided through forest conservation or offset through forest plantations. A Loanable-Forest Funds (LFF) model is developed which shows that forest conservation scenarios require lower rates of interest on forest bonds than forest offsetting ones. Then, unlike the Kyoto Protocol, which emphasises forest offset (forestry-CDM), the formal inclusion of forest conservation (REDD+) in the Paris Agreement might lower the real rates of return to long-term forest investments.

Marginal Waters for Agriculture - Characteristics and Suitability Analysis of Treated Paper Mill Effluent

Transforming Risk Assessment Tools from Paper to Electronic

Environmental Benefit of Using Bagasse in Paper Production - A Case Study of LCA in Iran

The Equivalence of Online and Paper-Pencil Measures of Emotional Intelligence

Application of IR Thermography for Studying Deformation and Fracture of Paper

A Discussion Paper on Challenges and Proposals for Advanced Treatments for Potabilization of Wastewater in the Food Industry

Advances in Teleophthalmology: Summarising Published Papers on Teleophthalmology Projects

Fundamentals of Paper Drying – Theory and Application from Industrial Perspective

Transport Phenomena in Paper and Wood-Based Panels Production

Pollution Prevention in the Pulp and Paper Industries

Twenty Landmark Papers in Biodiversity Conservation

The Effects of Paper Recycling and its Environmental Impact

Appropriateness and Adequacy of the Keywords Listed in Papers Published in Eating Disorders Journals Indexed Using the MEDLINE Database

On-Paper Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles for Antibacterial Applications

Signals for Emerging Technologies in Paper and Packaging Industry

During the last decades, consumers have increased the demand for healthier natural foods with lower presence of chemical additives. One reason of this choice is the controversy about chemical additives possible adverse effects. To fulfill market needs, different techniques have been developed to extract compounds from various raw materials to produce natural additives with different properties (preservatives, emulsifiers, or colorants) and bioactivities. In addition, the growing concern about the effects of climate change has led the development of more sustainable techniques to carry out the extraction. The use of new alternative nonconventional, emerging, or green extraction methodologies has gained considerable attention during the last decade. These novel techniques have been applied to minimize any negative changes in the nutritional, physicochemical or sensory properties of the natural source, while at the same time reducing the environmental impact of the process and gaining competitiveness of the world market. For this purpose, new green extraction methods have been proposed and optimized for the reduction of the consumption of raw materials, solvents, and energy. In this chapter, a revision of different types of green extraction techniques is compiled together with the main factor that can affect extraction-process feasibility and the main challenges and future trends for their development.

A review of the current status of sewage sludge decontamination using electron beam irradiation at industrial scale is presented. The chapter includes a historical development of the technology using both gamma and electron beam sources, a description of a facility using an electron accelerator, a discussion of the quality control techniques used to certify that satisfactory decontamination levels for safe use of treated sludge have been achieved, the effect of electron beam irradiation on the bacteria and virus present in a typical sample of municipal sewage sludge, and an analysis of the costs of decontaminating sewage sludge using electron beam irradiation compared to traditional and more routine technologies. Finally, the chapter concludes by emphasizing on the fact that electron accelerators described in this chapter are capable to decontaminate a typical municipal sewage sludge at competitive costs which are shown to be comparable and/or lower than routinely used technologies to achieve class A biosolids by the Environmental Protection Agency standards.

Fats and oils present in wastewater are usually eliminated by physical and biological processes. In this experience, the fatty wastewaters are treated biologically, and it assesses the impact of the mix in the fats and oils biodegradation and carried out the experiments in a laboratory scale unit. The biodegradation of fats and oils was analysed in two sceneries, with mix previous by mechanical agitation and without mix. Key parameters were monitored, such as the concentration of fats and oils in the influents and effluents, mass loading, and the efficiency of biodegradation. The mass loading range was similar in both sceneries. In the experimental activated sludge plant without mix, the biodegradation of fats and oils reached levels in the range of 28 to 42.5%. For the wastewater treatment plant with a previous mix by mechanical agitation, the levels of biodegradation of fats and oils ranged from 64 to 75%. Therefore, considering the efficiency of the biodegradation of fats and oils in both sceneries, the results indicated that the level mix is a high incidence.

Adsorption of Methylene Blue onto chemically (Na2CO3) treated ripe betel nut fibre (TRBNF) was studied using batch adsorption process for different concentrations of dye solutions (50, 100, 150 and 200 mg/L). Experiments were carried out as a function of contact time, initial solution pH (3 to11), adsorbent dose (10 gm/L – 18 gm/L) and temperature (293, 303 and 313 K). The adsorption was favoured at neutral pH and lower temperatures. Adsorption data were well described by the Langmuir isotherm and subsequently optimised using a second-order regression model by implementing face-centred CCD of Response Surface Methodology (RSM). The adsorption process followed the pseudo-second-order kinetic model. The maximum sorption capacity (qmax) was found to be 31.25 mg/g. Thermodynamic parameters suggest that the adsorption is a typical physical process, spontaneous, enthalpy driven and exothermic in nature. The maximum adsorption occurred at pH 7.0. The effect of adsorption was studied and optimum adsorption was obtained at a TRBNF dose of15 gm/L.

Pulsed Electric Fields (PEF) is a non-thermal technique that causes electroporation of cell membranes by applying very short pulses (μs) of a high-intensity electric field (kV/cm). Irreversible electroporation leads to the formation of permanent conductive channels in the cytoplasmic membrane of cells, resulting in the loss of cell viability. This effect is achieved with low energy requirements and minimal deterioration of quality. This chapter reviews the studies hitherto conducted to evaluate the potential of PEF as a technology for microbial decontamination in the winemaking process for reducing or replacing the use of SO2, for guaranteeing reproducible fermentations or for wine stabilization.

The oil contained in ripe fruits produced by cultivars of African oil palm Elaeis guineensis Jacq., as well as that obtained from fresh fruit bunches of certain inter-specific hybrid cultivars derived from crossbreeding between Elaeis oleifera (Kunth) Cortés and E. guineensis Jacq., have shown to be lipid substrates rich in valuable phytochemicals with exceptional biological properties and functional applications for multiple human health tasks. Eight isoforms of vitamin E (four tocopherols and four tocotrienols), α- and β-carotene, squalene, and various phenolic structures, make up the largest group of minor compounds in palm oil and are essential nutrients with physiological functions that include, but are not limited to their antioxidant properties. Vitamin E regulates the redox (oxidation-reduction) balance in the body, and compounds such as squalene and carotenoids are ubiquitously distributed throughout the body, including cell membranes and lipoproteins. Several studies suggest that regular intake of foods rich in this group of phytonutrients minimizes the reactivity of oxidative chemical species at the cellular level and serves as an effective adjunct in the treatment of oxidative stress.

The looking for sustainable sewage sludge management technology in the wastewater treatment plants, has brought to light the biocathode microbial fuel cells (bMFCs) which allow simultaneous biological stabilization and direct energy generation, avoiding the production of biogas. In the present study, the performance of bMFCs for the treatment of secondary sludge as anodic substrate was evaluated by analyzing the removal of organic matter, destruction of volatile solids and the generation of electrical energy under different operating conditions and applying two types of cathode chambers. The results indicated that VSS and tCOD removals up to 92% and 87% respectively can be achieved in the anodic chamber generating simultaneously energy. Current and power densities of 1.80 ± 0.09 A∙m−3 and 0.43 ± 0.02 W∙m−3 respectively were reached, showing that bMFCs are a reliable alternative to generate electricity during the sewage sludge stabilization process. It was revealed that the pH value and the type of cathodic zone are statistically significant factors that influenced the performance of the bMFCs. The obtained results demonstrated that the electrochemical performance of the bMFCs was better at pH value of 6 in the anodic chamber and when aerobic cathode zone was used.

Methane gas has a very significant contribution to the increase in greenhouse gases (GHG) globally. The livestock sector, especially ruminants, causes the issue of increasing GHG concentrations. The chapter presents the issue of reducing methane gas production from cattle. Various experiments to reduce methane gas production from ruminants have been carried out and have shown varying results. This series of results of the author\'s research on reducing methane gas production in livestock in beef cattle based on agriculture by-product to animal feed is addressed with this background. Agriculture by-products such as oil palm fronds and rice straw can be used to feed beef cattle in Indonesia. However, agriculture by-product as animal feed can reduce feed efficiency and increase methane gas production due to the high lignin content. Therefore, various alternatives are carried out to optimize the utilization of this plantation waste. One of them is the use of feed additives and methanogenesis inhibitors. The author\'s series of research using feed additives (direct-fed microbial) and various methanogenesis inhibitors (plant bioactive compounds and dietary lipids) were tested to determine their effect on nutrient digestibility and methane gas production in feed based on plantation waste. Experiments were carried out in vitro and in vivo on various types of ruminants. Plant bioactive compounds such as tannins are proven to reduce methane production through their ability to defaunate in the rumen. Tannins may also have direct effect on methanogens and indirectly by reducing fiber digestion. In addition, direct-fed microbial (DFM) feed additives such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Bacillus amyloliquifaciens, and Aspergillus oryzae can be used in ruminants to increase livestock productivity. Furthermore, virgin coconut oil as a dietary lipid contains medium-chain fatty acids, mainly lauric acid, which can inhibit the development of ciliates of protozoa and methanogenic bacteria that produce methane in the rumen.

This chapter describes the pectin production process from citrus residues. It discusses the importance of essential oils removal before processing through steam distillation, hydrodistillation, or solvent extraction. Also, it presents different extraction methods (acid hydrolysis, microwave-assisted acid hydrolysis, and hydrodistillation) that have been employed and different solvents that can be used for its purification. Since all these processing parameters can affect the final pectin yield and quality, a discussion is made on which processing options and conditions could be used based on recently reported data. The best operational conditions based on the percentages of pectin recovery and their relationship with quality parameters, such as the galacturonic acid content and degree of esterification are presented. Finally, a discussion is made regarding the opportunities for its integration under the biorefinery concept that could help to enhance several economic and environmental aspects of the process.

This chapter presents the most promising features and applications of biochar along with their optimal pyrolysis conditions. Biochars have a range of physicochemical properties depending on the feedstock and pyrolysis conditions, which greatly affect their wide applications. The biochar production and its characteristics, including the effect of feedstocks and different process-parameters on the properties and yield of biochar are thoroughly examined. The higher pyrolysis-temperature can give higher carbon-contents, pH, and surface-areas of biochars while volatiles and molar-ratios of O/C, H/C and N/C decrease with pyrolysis-temperature. Higher carbon-content and neutral-pH biochars have high affinity for organic pollutants due to high surface areas, making them attractive for adsorption and catalysis purposes. Biochars with higher-pH are preferred for soil application to correct soil-acidity. Thus, the pyrolysis temperature should be selected as per the final application of the biochar. Characterization of biochars of different feedstocks and pyrolysis conditions is reviewed and presented along with their proximate and ultimate analysis.