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Understanding landowners' willingness to act on climate change is important for effective climate policy. This study investigates the determinants of Finnish non-industrial private forest owners' preferences for alternative climate change mitigation strategies related to forests and wood use. The study tests hypotheses concerning the role of risk perception and political leaning for the support of seven alternative strategies with varying degree of disruption to the current logic of commercial forestry in Finland, which further aligns with the temporal delay in the impact of climate change mitigation strategies that landowners are willing to accept. Based on 887 survey responses from three regions, the study finds that forest owners generally support all but one of the seven strategies: reduced harvest. Results from ordinal logistic regression models further indicate that along with socio-demographic determinants, higher perceived risk and left-wing leaning with a university degree explain support for more disruptive strategies with more immediate mitigation impact (increased conservation, reduced harvest), while lower perceived risk and right-wing leaning without a university degree tend to associate with support for the less disruptive strategies (intensified management, increased harvest), both of which arguably sideline the urgency of climate action. In the highly politicized matter of harvest levels in Finland, the study also finds that right-wing leaning may negate the effect of higher education, which otherwise predicts greater support for more disruptive strategies. Implications for policy at the climate-forest nexus are derived. • Preferences of forest owners for mitigation strategies in forests were investigated. • Ordinal logistic regression with 887 survey responses was used. • Forest owners support all but one of the seven strategies: reduced harvest. • High perceived risk and left-wing leaning explain support for strengthening sinks. • Political leaning influences effect of higher education on support for strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Alpine study sites with a long close-to-nature forestry (CNF) history were studied. • Alternative climate change and CNF management scenarios were simulated. • CNF performs well in ensuring multiple forest ecosystem services and biodiversity. • Climate change requires adaptation of CNF by fostering climate-adapted tree species. • High multifunctionality, including biodiversity, needs diversified management. Close-to-nature forestry (CNF) has a long tradition in European Alpine forest management, playing a crucial role in ensuring the continuous provision of biodiversity and forest ecosystem services, including protection against natural hazards. However, climate change is causing huge uncertainties about the future applicability of CNF in the Alpine region. The question arises as to whether current CNF practices are still suitable for adapting forests to climate change impacts while also meeting the increasing societal demands regarding Alpine forests, including their potential contribution to climate change mitigation. To answer this question, we simulated forest development using the ForClim forest model at two Alpine study sites, together representing a large biogeographic gradient from high-elevation inner Alpine forests (Switzerland) to lower-elevation south-eastern Alpine forests (Slovenia). The simulations considered three climate scenarios (historical climate, SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5) and six alternative management strategies, including both current CNF management practices and climate-adapted versions. Using an indicator based multi-criteria decision analysis framework, we assessed the joint impacts of climate and management on biodiversity and key ecosystem services of the investigated regions, including carbon sequestration (CS) inside and outside the forest ecosystem boundary. The joint effects of climate change and CNF varied, both among and within the study sites along the biogeographical gradient. While CS was more resistant to climate change under current CNF at the south-eastern Alpine site, it was more sensitive at the inner Alpine site, where CS potentials decreased at lower elevations. This adverse effect could be partly mitigated by fostering the use of climate-adapted tree species. However, current CNF and adaptations of it did not meet multiple management objectives equally well: while protection from gravitation hazards and timber production also benefited from this silvicultural practice, biodiversity benefited from CNF variants with low-intensity or no management. In conclusion, CNF has a high potential to continue fulfilling its crucial role in European Alpine forests. A differentiated approach will be needed in the future, however, to identify forest stands where adaptive measures are required, especially at sites particularly vulnerable to climate change. In combination with less intensively managed or unmanaged areas, CNF provides a management portfolio that will help European Alpine forests to meet the demands of future society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Integrated multi-objective optimization with wood price uncertainty. • Identified trade-offs and synergies, considering wood price uncertainty. • Optimal management allocations shift with spatial and harvest size constraints. • Spatial restrictions and wood price uncertainty impact NPV and carbon sequestration. • Results inform strategic decisions in forest management. Forest ecosystems deliver multiple services crucial for human wellbeing and welfare, with complex relationships among forest ecosystem services (FESs). Implementing sustainable forest management (SFM) policy requires insights into trade-offs, conflicts and synergies among key FESs, necessitating decision-support tools for multiple objectives. However, uncertainty in key parameters adds complexity. We formulated a tri-objective optimization problem concentrating on three vital ecosystem services in Nordic boreal forests: timber supply, climate change mitigation, and biodiversity conservation. Furthermore, future timber price uncertainty was integrated into the optimization model. Utilizing the TreeSim individual-tree growth and yield simulator, we simulated forest growth and yields, carbon stocks, and biodiversity values. Pareto-optimal solutions were found for four distinct management strategies using the epsilon-constrain method to solve the optimization problem. These management strategies differed in spatial restrictions on harvest location and timing, including considerations like harvest adjacency, green-up and maximum harvest opening area (MOA). The analysis revealed trade-offs among all three objectives, with variations influenced by management intensity. Furthermore, within the Pareto solutions for each strategy, a compromise solution was identified based on the knee-point method. The study demonstrated nuanced impacts of green-up constraints related to harvest practices, showing minor effects on harvesting, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity conservation when MOA was restricted to 35 hectares or less. However, more substantial impacts were observed with a MOA limited to 60 hectares or in a strategy without spatial restrictions. Our results underscore the importance of considering multiple objectives in forest management and policy under uncertain wood prices, preventing undesired effects from a singular or deterministic approach. This work provides insights into trade-offs and synergies, contributing to strategic planning and policy design. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Boreal forests are often managed to maximize wood production, but other goals, among which climate change mitigation, are increasingly important. Hence, it is necessary to examine synergies and trade-offs between forest production and its potential for carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation in forest stands. To this aim, we develop a novel mass-balanced process-based compartmental model that allows following the carbon path from its photosynthetic fixation until its return to the atmosphere by autotrophic or heterotrophic respiration, or by being burnt as wood product. Following carbon in the system allows to account for how long forest ecosystems and wood products retain carbon away from the atmosphere (i.e., the carbon transit time). As example, we apply the model to four management scenarios, i.e., mixed-aged pine, even-aged pine, even-aged spruce, and even-aged mixed forest, and contrast metrics of performance relative to wood production, carbon sequestration, and climate change mitigation potential. While at the end of an 80 yr rotation the even-aged forests held up to 31% more carbon than the mixed-aged forest, the mixed-aged forest was superior during almost the entire rotation when factoring in the carbon retention time away from the atmosphere, i.e., in terms of climate change mitigation potential. Importantly, scenarios that maximize production or amount of carbon stored in the ecosystems are not necessarily the most beneficial for carbon retention away from the atmosphere. These results underline the importance of considering carbon transit time when evaluating forest management options for potential climate change mitigation. [Display omitted] • We evaluate wood production and climate change mitigation potential of boreal forests. • We combine an ecophysiological growth model with forest inventory tree allometries. • Higher carbon sequestration does not ensure higher climate change mitigation potential. • Potential climate change mitigation depends on carbon time away from the atmosphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The nexus between forest-based climate mitigation and health is poorly researched. • This scoping review identified exposure pathways and health co-benefits from forests. • There is potential for synergies between forest management and health benefits. • Interdisciplinary efforts are required for advancement of research and understanding. Climate change is a pressing global challenge with profound implications for human health. Forest-based climate change mitigation strategies, such as afforestation, reforestation, and sustainable forest management, offer promising solutions to mitigate climate change and simultaneously yield substantial co-benefits for human health. The objective of this scoping review was to examine research trends related to the interdisciplinary nexus between forests as carbon sinks and human health co-benefits. We developed a conceptual framework model, supporting the inclusion of exposure pathways, such as recreational opportunities or aesthetic experiences, in the co-benefit context. We used a scoping review methodology to identify the proportion of European research on forest-based mitigation strategies that acknowledge the interconnection between mitigation strategies and human impacts. We also aimed to assess whether synergies and trade-offs between forest-based carbon sink capacity and human co-benefits has been analysed and quantified. From the initial 4,062 records retrieved, 349 reports analysed European forest management principles and factors related to climate change mitigation capacity. Of those, 97 studies acknowledged human co-benefits and 13 studies quantified the impacts on exposure pathways or health co-benefits and were included for full review. Our analysis demonstrates that there is potential for synergies related to optimising carbon sink capacity together with human co-benefits, but there is currently a lack of holistic research approaches assessing these interrelationships. We suggest enhanced interdisciplinary efforts, using for example multideterminant modelling approaches, to advance evidence and understanding of the forest and health nexus in the context of climate change mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Substitution factors for forest products for the Canadian context were developed. • Substitution factors ranging from 0.51 to 0.91 tC/tC were found. • They will lead to more accurate assessments of the forest GHG mitigation potential. • These factors will help governments to manage forest and fight climate change. Evaluating the climate change mitigation potential of the forest sector requires a holistic approach based on forest carbon (C) sequestration, C storage in harvested wood products (HWP) and substitution on markets. High uncertainty is associated with substitution factors, that express avoided fossil greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the use of forest-based products in replacement of GHG-intensive materials and fossil fuels. Few studies have focused on the development of substitution factors in Canada, resulting in the use of unrepresentative generic data. Here, we provide a framework to reduce uncertainties related to substitution factors for primary wood products in a Canadian context. A life cycle assessment framework is used to quantify fossil GHG emissions for a baseline and a wood-intensive scenario. For solid product substitution, we focused on the construction sector and analyzed a range of innovative wood buildings with steel and reinforced concrete as alternative materials. We found non-weighted averages of 0.80 tC/tC for sawnwood and 0.81 tC/tC for panels. For energy substitution, we analyzed cases with different specifications on biomass product, facility type and alternative fossil fuel source in non-residential heat production and biofuel transportation sectors. We found a non-weighted average of 0.80 tC/tC for non-residential heat production and 0.51 tC/tC for biofuel transportation, that can be interpreted as 0.91 tC/tC for heavy fuel oil, 0.69 tC/tC for light fuel oil and 0.68 tC/tC for natural gas substitution. These results provide a benchmark for substitution factors in Canada, to help guide forest management strategies for climate change mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Temporary carbon storage and substitution benefits of harvested wood products (HWPs) aid in mitigating global warming. However, the extent of this effect remains unclear. Current studies typically rely on a simple summation of the annual carbon sink. This method overlooks the fact that, due to radiative forcing delay, each ton of carbon sequestered has an impact on global warming, which dynamically changes year by year. Such an oversight could lead to an underestimation of HWPs' contribution to global warming mitigation. This study focused on a forestry resource-based city in Northeast China and utilized the Carbon Budget Model for the Canadian Forest Sector (CBM-CFS3) and dynamic life cycle assessment (DLCA) to quantify the dynamic global warming impact (DGWI) of forestry biogenic carbon. The results indicate that: 1) From 2020 to 2120, the maximum DGWI could reach −42.70 Mt CO 2 e. Enhancing the collection and utilization of harvesting residues and promoting products with longer lifespans and higher substitution potential can further increase these benefits. 2) The DLCA method, integrating substitution effects, offers a more precise evaluation of forestry's climate mitigation benefits. Across all scenarios and periods in this study, HWPs' contribution to mitigating global warming, as calculated by the DLCA method, exceeds that estimated by the simple carbon sink summation method by 7.70 %–560.72 %. These findings help to delve deeper into the role of forests in emission reduction and carbon sequestration, providing important references for achieving sustainable forestry management. • Developing and strategically using HWPs positively impacts global warming mitigation. • Method of simply summing up carbon sinks undervalues HWPs' cumulative climate impact. • DLCA method helps assess dynamic global warming impact of forestry biogenic carbon. • Forest management should balance wood production and climate mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Most of the NbS of Tropical drylands of India are not follow the IUCN standard criteria. • The Identified NbS are baised towards environmental services than addressing social needs of the people. • Improved NbS interventions requires intensive enagement of stakeholders for addressing social causes. Nature-based Solutions (NbS) is a flexible, adaptable, and multi-functional strategies employed to address climate change. However, all the claimed NbS are actually do not adhere the criteria of being NbS. Therefore, present study analysed 87 articles to appraise adherence of potential NbS as per the IUCN Global Standard, along with evaluation of flow of associated ecosystem services (ES). The review identified 39 interventions, out of which only twelve interventions adhered the criteria of NbS. Among the classified NbS, two interventions, namely, sustainable forest management (SFM) (80.83%) and haveli rejuvenation (75.61%) strongly adhered to the IUCN Standard. Lack of adherence in the non-classified NbS interventions was mainly attributed to absence of information on inclusive governance, monitoring and associated trade-offs. The identified 39 interventions were also observed to be enhancing a total of 37 ES, evaluated through 37 distinct indicators i.e. different and enhanced flow of ES were observed by the different NbS. However, the majority of classified NbS were biased towards flow of environmental services than social services. Present study results that all claimed NbS cannot fulfilled the intended objectives of NbS and thus cannot be classified under the NbS as per global standard. Moreover, assessing the flow of associated ES may be an additional support to broaden the scope of NbS implementation. Therefore, present study also highlights to integrate the flow of ES along with the adherence criteria of NbS. Moreover, the review also facilitate to understand constraints associated with the implementation of potential NbS interventions and thus, suggests considering wider aspects in the future researches for assessing the implementation of NbS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Knowledge and contribution of Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities is critical in REDD + success. • Benefit Sharing Plan (BSP) offers an opportunity to recognize historical contributions of traditional users. • Inability to resolve context specific benefit sharing issues may result in the failure of REDD+. • Nepal's BSP need to specify the monetary benefits to the traditional distant users of Tarai region. Achieving the objectives of Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest(s) Degradation, Conservation and Enhancement of Forest Carbon Stocks and Sustainable Management of Forests in developing countries (REDD+) will remain an aspiration unless and until the historical contributions of Indigenous Peoples (IPs) and Local Communities (LCs) to the state and management of forests are recognised and respected. REDD + is designed for developing countries where community-based forest management systems (CBFM) are becoming increasingly popular. Using the case study of Nepal, a pioneer of community forest (CF) management, we show how the traditional users of Tarai forests are systemically excluded from mainstream CF practices and discuss the potential negative implications of not rewarding their historical contribution. Considering the scope provided by REDD + benefit sharing plans (BSPs) and the greater number of developing countries involved in designing BSPs, we: (1) argue that BSP offers a unique opportunity to recognize historical contributions of traditional users; (2) suggest specific provisions for channelling REDD + benefits to the traditional users as a potential solution; and (3) conclude that the inability to provide such benefits may result in the failure of REDD + on a broader scale, nullifying global efforts for forest-based climate change mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Stand spatial structure plays an important role in the fragile natural secondary forest. • Species diversity have a negative impact in changing restored woodlands, thereby reducing productivity. • Stand spatial structure has a stronger impact on forest carbon sink than species diversity. • Stand spatial structure is a prioritized indicator in the regulation of fragile forest ecosystems. Increasing attention for adjusting forest structural and species diversity has been paid to enhance carbon storage. However, the relative importance of stand spatial structural diversity and species diversity to restored stand carbon stocks remains unclear. To address this issue, we conducted a sample plot setup in the Loess Plateau with the aim of exploring the effects of stand spatial structural diversity and species diversity on forest carbon stocks. Therefore, we determined index parameters for species diversity (Simpson, Shannon-Wiener, and Pielou) and spatial structural diversity (Angular scale, Mingling, Aggregation, and Competition) within the oak forest ecosystem. We examined carbon storage in all vegetation organs and different soil layers. Additionally, we employed a structural equation model to develop a model that illustrates the effects of stand spatial structure and species diversity on ecosystem carbon storage. The results reveal that stand spatial structure and species diversity influence the ecosystem carbon storage through biomass (trees and litter) and soil carbon (0–100 cm). Stand spatial structure exhibits positive direct effects (path coefficients: 0.764 and 0.890), while species diversity shows negative direct effects (−0.320 and −0.206) on biomass and soil carbon, respectively. Finally, the total effect of spatial structure diversity on forest carbon storage surpasses that of species diversity. Therefore, stand spatial structure should be adjusted preferentially during forest management in fragile ecological environment. Our results provide important insights into the climate change mitigation potential associated with the structure-based management of forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Four design principles would inform a forest carbon market-based mechanism in India. • Robust governance and accounting emerge as key technical considerations. • Local community involvement and flexible spatio-temporal criteria would encourage participation. • Land tenure, implementation challenges and design flaws may inhibit effectiveness. Forest carbon markets (FCMs) have emerged as a significant means to direct resources toward urgent climate action that can mobilize a large set of actors and catalyze funding toward reducing deforestation and promoting sustainable forest management. Here, we conduct a critical qualitative review of global academic and investigative literature to identify ten major sets of design principles that provide a platform for the functioning of carbon markets worldwide. From these, we pinpoint four design principles which may be relevant to future market-based mechanisms in India We propose that clarity over market-quality standards, comprehensive regulatory framework, minimization of transaction costs and upfront financing options, and flexibility in time-bound and spatial commitments would be fundamental to ensure that market-based mechanisms in India accrue sustainable and long-term benefits to climate action and human well-being. A successful market-based mechanism in India's forestry sector would have to overcome challenges around land property rights, local implementation capacities and knowledge gaps, and incentive structures to ensure that it likely caters to the needs of all stakeholders while delivering socio-ecological benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Benefits of environmental-economic carbon stock and flow accounts to inform policy. • Similar values of native forest protection for mitigation or timber production. • Protecting forests has many additional co-benefits that provide greater public good. • Recommend adopting comprehensive carbon accounting including all land use activities. Abstract Comprehensive carbon stock and flow accounts integrated with economic information, under an environmental-economic accounting framework, provide a common approach for an information system to improve policymaking for climate change mitigation, sustainable development and forest management. The information system includes environmental and economic data, linkages between land use activities, their co-benefits, inputs to the economy and benefits for human well-being. Forest management was used as an example of application of the accounting framework because it has the greatest climate change mitigation potential of all land use activities. A case study developing carbon accounts for a forest region in south-eastern Australia demonstrated the mitigation benefits of long-term carbon storage and sequestration in native forests. Using environmental-economic accounts helped identify policy and market instruments required to value ecosystem services of carbon storage and sequestration by applying a potential market price for carbon. We identified benefits of native forest protection as a carbon abatement activity, and compared this value to that of current forest management for timber harvesting that reduces carbon stocks. Both land uses provided similar economic contributions (approximately $12 million yr−1, using a minimal carbon price), but native forest protection has additional co-benefits of improving water yield, tourism, recreation and biodiversity conservation. The accounts determine values of land use activities in physical and monetary metrics, and link these to beneficiaries of ecosystem services, so that maximum benefits for public good are identified. Quantifying ecosystem services of carbon storage (protecting stocks) and sequestration (increasing flows) in a native forest region, by applying a potential market price, broadens the policy options for mitigation activities. Adopting a comprehensive accounting system, and changing some of the definitions and rules under the Paris Agreement and national emissions reduction policies and markets, would allow the mitigation benefit of protecting native forests to be realised. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Forest-based bioenergy plays an important role in climate mitigation for limiting global mean temperature increase to below 2 °C. The greenhouse gas (GHG) impact of three forest-based bioenergy systems from the USA, Canada and Spain supplying wood pellets for electricity in the UK were evaluated by conducting lifecycle assessments and forest carbon modelling of the three forest systems. Cumulative emissions were analysed by calculating the forest carbon stock change and net GHG emissions balance of the forest-based bioenergy electricity. The analysis considered both the replacement of the existing electricity mix with bioenergy electricity and forest management with and without bioenergy use. The supply chain emissions and forest carbon balances indicated that GHG emission reductions are possible. However, the cumulative net GHG balance at forest landscape scale revealed that the reduction potential is limited, potentially with no GHG reductions in fast growing forests with shorter rotations, while slow growing forest systems with longer rotations result in greater GHG reductions. This means that the maximum climate benefit is delivered at a different point in time for different forest systems. To evaluate the climate change mitigation potential of forest-based bioenergy it is therefore necessary to consider the management, utilisation and relevant counterfactual of the whole forest and its products. In terms of climate change mitigation potential and minimising possible negative impacts that would require multi-level governance. Highlights • Net GHG balance shows GHG reduction potential of forest bioenergy is limited. • Results are dependent on methods, system boundaries and reference system. • Mitigation potential depends on forest management and whole forest product basket. • Multi-level governance framework require to track wider impacts of forest bioenergy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The CH 4 fluxes from global forest soils are estimated. • MAT, MAP, soil BD, SOC, and TN were the key drivers of the forest soil CH 4 fluxes. • The CH 4 budget of global forest soils is 14.98 [7.96–21.73] Tg CH 4 yr−1. • Nearly 3.17% of the total area of global forest soils was a net CH 4 source. • The global mean CH 4 uptake in forest soils was 3.95 kg CH 4 ha−1 yr−1. Forest ecosystems play an important role in the global CH 4 cycle. Understanding and quantifying the contribution and distribution of CH 4 sinks and sources in global forest soils is vital for assessing realistic approaches to climate change mitigation. Here, we compiled a dataset of in situ global forest soil CH 4 fluxes from published data, incorporating 772 case studies covering boreal (n = 12), temperate (n = 369), subtropical (n = 208), and tropical (n = 183) forests and spanning 1991–2020 as a basis to build the mixed-effect model. Using the screened best model, we identified the main drivers and predicted the global distribution of the forest soil CH 4 flux. Our research revealed that global forest soil CH 4 uptake decreased significantly with increasing mean annual temperature (MAT), soil bulk density (BD), soil organic carbon (SOC), and soil total nitrogen (TN) but increased significantly with increasing mean annual precipitation (MAP). The global mean CH 4 uptake rate in forest soils was 3.95 ± 1.78 kg CH 4 ha−1 yr−1, with the total sink of 14.98 ± 6.75 Tg CH 4 yr−1. The soil CH 4 sinks in temperate and tropical forests contributed 84 % to the total sink of global forests. The CH 4 emission rate in global forest soils averaged 1.12 ± 1.11 kg CH 4 ha−1 yr−1, with the total source of 0.14 ± 0.14 Tg CH 4 yr−1. Nearly 3 % of the total area of global forest soils was a net CH 4 source. In summary, we identified the key drivers of forest soil CH 4 flux and improved previous estimates of the global CH 4 budget in forest soils. These findings can support decision-making related to forest management and greenhouse gas restrictions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Global forest sector model intercomparison of 81 future pathway scenarios. • Socioeconomic drivers have strongly influence forest sector model estimates. • Global forests could sequester 1.2–5.8 GtCO2e/yr over the next century. • Improved management can increase carbon and harvests without expanding forest area. • Climate policy assessments could better represent forest markets and management dynamics. Deforestation has contributed significantly to net greenhouse gas emissions, but slowing deforestation, regrowing forests and other ecosystem processes have made forests a net sink. Deforestation will still influence future carbon fluxes, but the role of forest growth through aging, management, and other silvicultural inputs on future carbon fluxes are critically important but not always recognized by bookkeeping and integrated assessment models. When projecting the future, it is vital to capture how management processes affect carbon storage in ecosystems and wood products. This study uses multiple global forest sector models to project forest carbon impacts across 81 shared socioeconomic (SSP) and climate mitigation pathway scenarios. We illustrate the importance of modeling management decisions in existing forests in response to changing demands for land resources, wood products and carbon. Although the models vary in key attributes, there is general agreement across a majority of scenarios that the global forest sector could remain a carbon sink in the future, sequestering 1.2–5.8 GtCO2e/yr over the next century. Carbon fluxes in the baseline scenarios that exclude climate mitigation policy ranged from −0.8 to 4.9 GtCO2e/yr, highlighting the strong influence of SSPs on forest sector model estimates. Improved forest management can jointly increase carbon stocks and harvests without expanding forest area, suggesting that carbon fluxes from managed forests systems deserve more careful consideration by the climate policy community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: While issues of land-use have been considered in many direct analyses of biomass systems, little attention has heretofore been paid to land-use in reference fossil systems. Here we address this limitation by comparing forest biomass systems to reference fossil systems with explicit consideration of land-use in both systems. We estimate and compare the time profiles of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission and cumulative radiative forcing (CRF) of woody biomass systems and reference fossil systems. A life cycle perspective is used that includes all significant elements of both systems, including GHG emissions along the full material and energy chains. We consider the growth dynamics of forests under different management regimes, as well as energy and material substitution effects of harvested biomass. We determine the annual net emissions of CO2, N2O and CH4 for each system over a 240-year period, and then calculate time profiles of CRF as a proxy measurement of climate change impact. The results show greatest potential for climate change mitigation when intensive forest management is applied in the woody biomass system. This methodological framework provides a tool to help determine optimal strategies for managing forests so as to minimize climate change impacts. The inclusion of land-use in the reference system improves the accuracy of quantitative projections of climate benefits of biomass-based systems. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Climatic changes will affect the dynamics of a forest ecosystem. Consequently, carbon sequestration costs can only be estimated correctly if changes in climatic conditions are considered. This article determines the changes in mitigation costs of an optimal forest management regime in the presence of climatic changes and varying prices, and takes account of substitution processes between timber production and carbon sequestration at the stand level. The study demonstrates that in the presence of climate change the sequestration costs per ton of carbon increase with higher amounts of carbon sequestered per hectare. This finding can be used to identify a threshold for the amount of sequestered carbon per hectare below which the costs of carbon sequestration are hardly influenced by climate change. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this study we analyze and compare the climate impacts from the recovery, transport and combustion of forest residues (harvest slash and stumps), versus the climate impacts that would have occurred if the residues were left in the forest and fossil fuels used instead. We use cumulative radiative forcing (CRF) as an indicator of climate impacts, and we explicitly consider the temporal dynamics of atmospheric carbon dioxide and biomass decomposition. Over a 240-year period, we find that CRF is significantly reduced when forest residues are used instead of fossil fuels. The type of fossil fuel replaced is important, with coal replacement giving the greatest CRF reduction. Replacing oil and fossil gas also gives long-term CRF reduction, although CRF is positive during the first 10–25 years when these fuels are replaced. Biomass productivity is also important, with more productive forests giving greater CRF reduction per hectare. The decay rate for biomass left in the forest is found to be less significant. Fossil energy inputs for biomass recovery and transport have very little impact on CRF. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this study we analyze the primary energy and greenhouse gas (GHG) implications of increasing biomass production by fertilizing 10% of Swedish forest land. We estimate the primary energy use and GHG emissions from forest management including production and application of N and NPK fertilizers. Based on modelled growth response, we then estimate the net primary energy and GHG benefits of using biomaterials and biofuels obtained from the increased forest biomass production. The results show an increased annual biomass harvest of 7.4 million t dry matter, of which 41% is large-diameter stemwood. About 6.9 PJ/year of additional primary energy input is needed for fertilizer production and forest management. Using the additional biomass for fuel and material substitution can reduce fossil primary energy use by 150 or 164 PJ/year if the reference fossil fuel is fossil gas or coal, respectively. About 22% of the reduced fossil energy use is due to material substitution and the remainder is due to fuel substitution. The net annual primary energy benefit corresponds to about 7% of Sweden''s total primary energy use. The resulting annual net GHG emission reduction is 11.9 million or 18.1 million tCO2equiv if the reference fossil fuel is fossil gas or coal, respectively, corresponding to 18% or 28% of the total Swedish GHG emissions in 2007. A significant one-time carbon stock increase also occurs in wood products and forest tree biomass. These results suggest that forest fertilization is an attractive option for increasing energy security and reducing net GHG emission. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

[Display omitted] • Climate smart forestry (CSF) indicators based on forest inventory are presented. • Indicators were projected under management scenarios with a simulation model. • National carbon stock increases with current management, but regions differ. • Trade-offs occur between mitigation, adaptation and ecosystem services (ES). • The presented framework can support policy in balancing ES in the context of CSF. Climate-smart forestry (CSF) has gained increasing attention in recent years. Yet, a framework to assess the three pillars of CSF, in terms of mitigation and adaptation to climate change and ecosystem service (ES) provision based on national forest inventory (NFI) data is currently lacking. In this study, we present an assessment framework of CSF based on forest indicators derived from NFI. To quantify the three pillars of CSF we defined 1) mitigation based on the forest carbon stock, 2) adaptation using biodiversity and susceptibility to disturbances caused by storm and bark beetles and 3) ES provision with timber production and protection against avalanches and rockfall. We demonstrate the application of this framework using Swiss NFI data and projections of future forest development under four different management scenarios. Our results show that, in general, the carbon stock is increasing at the national scale when current management practices are maintained. Increases are especially pronounced in the Jura and Southern Alps regions. Trade-offs occur between enhancing mitigation and adaption, and the sustainable provision of ES such as timber production. Scenarios with increased harvesting intensities lead to a higher timber supply in the short-term, while decreasing the carbon stock, biodiversity-related old-growth indicators and the protective function of forests. The indicator framework presented in this study provides a first methodological approach that can support policy making to balance the different forest services in the context of CSF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Ecosystem services have synergies and trade-offs between sustainability dimensions. • The complex nature of ecosystem model output make communicating findings difficult. • We developed modeled based CIs to evaluate forest management strategies. • Composites were systematically evaluated across three regions and climate periods. Forests provide a wide range of ecosystem services, and ecosystem models can be applied to assess the contribution of different forest management strategies to climate mitigation and adaptation. Complex model output and trade-offs between environmental, economic, and social sustainability dimensions are difficult to convey. To facilitate stakeholder communication, we developed composite indicators based on ten ecosystem service indicators obtained from ecosystem model simulations representing 19 forestry management strategies across three ecoregions and climate scenario projections in Sweden. Eight alternative composites were generated around a central framework addressing sustainability aspects in terms of wood production, preservation of biodiversity, climate change mitigation and adaptation (risk management). A combination of principal component analysis, exploratory factor analysis, Cronbach's coefficient alpha, and hierarchical cluster analysis was applied to account for the statistical relationships between indicators. Z-score normalization was superior to min-max normalization in capturing differences among management strategies. Two weighting schemes were applied, based on policy prioritizations between sub-components that reflected 1) current policy with an equal emphasis on production and biodiversity, and 2) a stronger focus on nature protection. Equal emphasis generated a larger range of scores (76.0 ± 21.2) than the focus on nature protection (32.0 ± 5.8), as the latter would provide less production benefits and thereby fewer trade-offs between production and other aspects. The final scores of the 19 management strategies fell within a variance boundary of each other, showing their contribution to different policy targets and the usefulness of combining strategies at the landscape level. The composites displayed agreement across regions and scenarios. They indicated that a shift from even-aged conifer monocultures towards a combination of continuous cover, broadleaf-mixture, and unmanaged would work well for balancing goals under changing climate conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Industrialized countries agreed on a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions under the Kyoto Protocol. Many countries elected forest management activities and the resulting net balance of carbon emissions and removals of non-CO2 greenhouse gases by forest management in their climate change mitigation measures. In this paper a generic dynamic forestry model (FORMICA) is presented. It has an empirical basis. Several modules trace C pools relevant for the Kyoto Protocol and beyond: biomass, litter, deadwood and soil, and harvested wood products. The model also accounts for the substitution of fossil fuels by wood products and bioenergy. FORMICA was used to first study the model sensitivity and uncertainty based on data from Thuringia, a federal state of Germany, to determine the major sources of uncertainty in carbon accounting at different levels of carbon pool aggregation (biomass, ecosystem, forestry sector and enhanced forestry sector including the accumulated substitution effect). Rotation length and maximum increment contributed most to uncertainty in biomass. The influence of the latter did not diminish with higher level of pool aggregation. Uncertainty in the enhanced forestry sector was to a smaller degree controlled by product and substitution related parameters. Relative uncertainty decreased with the level of aggregation and comprehensiveness of the carbon budget. In a second step the model estimated the sink potential of the Thuringian forestry sector. The projected average biomass sink for the period of 2003–2043 of 0.6tCha−1 year−1 could be increased by 50% by broadening the perspective to the entire forestry sector, including substitution effects. A simulation of forest conservation on 20% of the forest area increased C fixation. However, even in the biomass C pool the expected C stock changes did not exceed the estimated uncertainty of 40%. A higher level of aggregation (i.e. the inclusion of soil and litter, product pool and substitution effects) decreases relative uncertainty but also diminishes differences between different management options. The analysis demonstrates that the choice of management mitigation options under an accounting scheme should include the impacts on forest products and of substitution effects. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Climate-sensitive additive stand biomass models were developed. • The difference in biomass estimations when using the new models at a large scale was quantified. • Forecast combination method reduced the uncertainty from the biomass models. • About $8.3 million carbon services were underestimated using traditional models. • Climate-sensitive stand biomass models were recommended for carbon service accounting. Accurate forest carbon service accounting is essential for climate change mitigation. At present, the knowledge about whether and how climate-sensitive stand biomass models could reduce the uncertainty of forest biomass/carbon estimation is lacking. Hence, the aim of this study is to develop climate-sensitive stand biomass models and quantify their differences. Data containing 539 sample plots of larch plantations in northern and northeastern China were utilized to develop two basic and the corresponding climate-sensitive stand biomass models. Owing to the uncertainty from predictors, the forecast combination method was used to combine the two basic models (FCMs) and the two climate-sensitive models (CS-FCMs) and to quantify the difference in biomass estimations at the plot and regional scales. Results showed that the adjusted R 2 values of the stand biomass models were greater than 0.85 and the relative root mean square errors ranged from 5.51% to 22.62%. The CS-FCMs produced more accurate biomass estimates than the FCMs. The difference in biomass estimations derived from biomass models with and without climatic variables was 411,549 tons or 0.27% at the regional scale, but the carbon value difference amounted to about $8.3 million. This study underlined the importance of accurate carbon accounting based on climate-modified stand biomass models for forest carbon management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Maps of forest age classes were obtained from high resolution imagery. • Segmentation, Random Forests and post-processed methods improved accuracy of age maps. • Vegetation structure and species composition were strongly associated with successional age. • Vegetation structure and species composition can be used as ecological indicator of forest age. Land use changes generate a mosaic of forest patches with different ages of abandonment (i.e. succession) intermingled with other land uses. Mapping the successional age of vegetation is crucial to understand carbon accumulation patterns and the recovery of vegetation structure, diversity, and composition of forests over time. The overall objective of this research was to produce maps portraying secondary vegetation age classes and to assess how successional age classes can be related to vegetation structure, diversity and composition in two types of tropical dry forests (TDF) in the Yucatan Peninsula. We used a two-stage image classification process. First, SPOT-5 imagery were segmented and then classified using a Random Forests method. Second, the classified images were post-processed to rectify any classification errors. Additionally, we evaluated the association between the different forest age classes and vegetation structure, species richness and composition using a separate Random Forests classification of field plot data. Post-processing improved the accuracy of the Random Forests classifications by 14.19% and 16.28% for the tropical semi-deciduous and semi-evergreen forests, to attain final accuracy values of 91% and 88.37%, respectively. Vegetation structure, richness and composition were all strongly associated with successional age, accounting for 77.7% and 84.7% of the total variation among forest age classes for the tropical semi-deciduous and semi-evergreen forests respectively. Therefore, the forest age maps obtained can be related to attributes of vegetation structure, diversity and composition that are useful for biodiversity conservation, forest management and climate change mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We present an indicator approach for the assessment of carbon (C) sustainability of forest management. • The indicator integrates forest C-pool changes by logging and C-offsets by timber utilization. • The indicator assesses the sustainable management of forests (SFM) in terms of climate mitigation. • Studying entire wood product chains relates utilization intensities to C-sustainability. • Two indicator alternatives are presented for regional levels and individual forest stands. In forest management, the sustainability of a multitude of economic, ecological and socio-economic impacts and services is assessed. The role of forests in the global carbon (C) cycle is almost exclusively assessed through an ecosystem approach that relates emissions from timber harvesting and removals through biomass growth and C sequestration. While harvested wood leads to a reduction in the C-stock in forest C-pools, the use of wood for energy and production of wood-based materials results in significant emission reductions by substituting in place of greenhouse gas (GHG) intensive fuels and energy-intensive non-wood materials respectively. We present a new indicator approach for the assessment of sustainable forest management that includes the entire emissions and removals associated with the harvested wood along the wood product value chain and thus represents represents C-sustainability with respect to emissions and removals. The indicator is implemented in two variants. If information available on wood use and the carbon offsets associated with it is sufficient, the indicator can be derived by presenting emissions from wood harvesting and removals from wood use in the form of a carbon balance (C-balance indicator). If the balance is even or if removals predominate, forest management fulfills the requirement of C-sustainability. If the information is insufficient, the emissions from the wood harvest and possible wood processing losses are summed up, and the necessary displacement factor (DF) is calculated, which is necessary to compensate the corresponding emissions by carbon offsets of the wood use (DF-indicator). A comparison of the necessary displacement factor with common carbon offsets of typical wood uses allows an assessment of C-sustainability. The effectiveness of the C-indicator for assessing sustainable forest management is illustrated by two case studies. We found that in order to achieve carbon neutrality, substitution factors between 1.9 (lignite) and 2.5 (gas) are necessary, depending on the fossil fuel substituted. If no energetic substitution is assumed, the DF increases to a value of 3.3. In situations with high harvest losses, the necessary DFs well exceed values that can be achieved even under very positive assumptions; C-sustainability is therefore not met. Both approaches allow an assessment of C-sustainability beyond forest boundaries by giving appropriate weight to the importance of wood use in the carbon cycle. In addition to the implication of the indicator to evaluate SFM, we claim that this indicator is responsive to the emerging global forest related international processes and their reporting requirements such as Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation in Developing Countries (REDD+) as well as nationally appropriate mitigation actions (NDCs, Low Emission Development Strategy). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Methodological framework for updating existing jurisdictional forest inventory data. • Integration of Landsat time series, terrain and environmental data. • Wall-to-wall forest attribute maps at sub-stand level for British Columbia, Canada. • Time series remote sensing enables inventory update for four unique attributes. • Overall accuracy of 72% for the species which dominate 80% of the forested areas. Up-to-date forest inventory information relating the characteristics of managed and natural forests is fundamental to sustainable forest management and required to inform conservation of biodiversity and assess climate change impacts and mitigation opportunities. Strategic forest inventories are difficult to compile over large areas and are often quickly outdated or spatially incomplete as a function of their long production cycle. As a consequence, automated approaches supported by remotely sensed data are increasingly sought to provide exhaustive spatial coverage for a set of core attributes in a timely fashion. The objective of this study was to demonstrate the integration of current remotely-sensed data products and pre-existing jurisdictional inventory data to map four forest attributes of interest (stand age, dominant species, site index, and stem density) for a 55 Mha study region in British Columbia, Canada. First, via image segmentation, spectrally homogenous objects were derived from Landsat surface-reflectance pixel composites. Second, a suite of Landsat-based predictors (e.g., spectral indices, disturbance history, and forest structure) and ancillary variables (e.g., geographic, topographic, and climatic) were derived for these units and used to develop predictive models of target attributes. For the often difficult classification of dominant species, two modelling approaches were compared: (a) a global Random Forests model calibrated with training samples collected over the entire study area, and (b) an ensemble of local models, each calibrated with spatially constrained local samples. Accuracy assessment based upon independent validation samples revealed that the ensemble of local models was more accurate and efficient for species classification, achieving an overall accuracy of 72% for the species which dominate 80% of the forested areas in the province. Results indicated that site index had the highest agreement between predicted and reference (R2 = 0.74, %RMSE = 23.1%), followed by stand age (R2 = 0.62, %RMSE = 35.6%), and stem density (R2 = 0.33, %RMSE = 65.2%). Inventory attributes mapped at the image-derived unit level captured much finer details than traditional polygon-based inventory, yet can be readily reassembled into these larger units for strategic forest planning purposes. Based upon this work, we conclude that in a multi-source forest monitoring program, spatially localized and detailed characterizations enabled by time series of Landsat observations in conjunction with ancillary data can be used to support strategic inventory activities over large areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]