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The article discusses the development trends in the press of several Scandinavian countries, including Finland, Denmark, and Norway. It states that since the Second World War, publication of newspapers in Scandinavia has shifted economically and technologically toward a large-scale or primarily medium industry. It explores the development tendencies in the press by commercialization, one-sidedness, and centralization. It highlights the laws for advertising market in Scandinavia. It mentions that the Finnish press committee proposed several measures, such as budget allocation for newspapers' transportation subsidies.

The article presents authors' comments on three research papers on economic development after Second World War by economists Erik Lundberg, George H. Hildebrand and Shigeto Tsuru. These papers point out some striking contrasts among the experiences of countries including Scandinavia, Japan and Italy and the postwar experience of the U.S. For example, these papers insistently raise the question why the U.S. has done so poorly in achieving stable and rapid growth. They discuss whether it is a matter of economic structure, or partly a fault of economic policy. Research paper by Hildebrand provides a summary both of the Italian postwar economic achievement and of Italy's still pressing problems of unemployment and incomplete development. But there are aspects of his analysis that needs to be questioned. Moreover, papers of Hildebrand and Tsuru gave the impression that something of a catching-up process has been important in the Italian and Japanese economies. In his paper Lundberg drew attention to some destabilizing effects of governmental action in Sweden. They refer to public investments or publicly controlled investments as an instrument of anti cyclical policy.

The present paper outlines some rough suggestions for a possible Nordic computer-based information system for storing, processing and delivering the output of theoretical and empirical research on human communication that is being carried out within scientific and applied contexts first and foremost in the Nordic region. Such a system may contribute towards an integrated body of knowledge of human communication systems. The suggested areas covered and some gross dimensions of a possible reference frame for the organization of information are indicated, and user relations and requests are commented upon. It is advocated that both processed empirical data and theoretical propositions be handled by the proposed information system (called CRISS for short), and reasons for the need of it being partly computerized are given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to examine, by comparative analysis, the role played by the state in resolving labor disputes in Denmark, Norway, Sweden and Finland and to suggest reasons that may explain why these roles have assumed different forms in these four countries. Three forms of state action in the settlement of disputes are considered: implementation decisions in cases involving disputes about rights; mediation in cases in which interests are in dispute; and forcible intervention in cases in which it appears that public safety is threatened. These three forms are regarded as dependent variables that vary from country to country depending on two sorts of independent variables: first, historical factors of a political and economic nature (background variables) and second, organizational-structural factors and parliamentary power factors (intermediate variables). The economic background variables have to do with the character of the industrialization process: the date it began, the pace at which it unfolded, and the kind of economic structure (and in consequence the organizational structure) it brought into being. The political variables have to do first of all with the point in time the political system became democratic and the way this was accomplished; but more special and unique factors are also considered, such as national "traumas" Like civil war (Finland) and general strike (Sweden), together with special features of the Countries' political cultures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents an update on the field of sociology as of December 1971. The Scandinavian Sociological Association (SSA) the coordinates the activities of the sociological associations in Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden. Its primary tasks are to publish the quarterly journal Acta Sociological and to organize biannual congress. At the meeting of the board of the SSA in Gothenburg, Sweden on May 14, 1971, Sten Johansson of Uppsala, Sweden was elected chairman of the SSA. The Third International Conference on Social Science and Medicine will be held under the auspices of Social Science and Medicine, an international journal in conjunction with the Institute of Social Medicine, University of Copenhagen. The conference will be divided into ten sections. In order to provide for the greatest possible amount of professional exchange, total membership will be limited to 150 and each section to a maximum of 50.

The article reports on the alcohol studies in Scandinavia. Drinking patterns and social functions of drinking vary, but there exists in every culture institutionalized ways of determining appropriate situations for drinking. The degree of interest shown in the alcohol research in a given society reflects the societal concern with drinking. The interest in sociological alcohol research in Scandinavia has been shown in areas such as importance of investigating variations of drinking habits and their social functions in different subcultures. The studies indicate that the legal per capita consumption is lowest in Finland and the next lowest in Norway and Denmark and Sweden are very close to each other in consumption. Among the people who use alcohol, there is a wide variation as far as drinking frequency is concerned, but more than 50 per cent of the drinkers drink once a month or less often. Women are less permissive toward drinking and less inclined to attach importance to instrumental drinking. Religious activity tends to inhibit drinking of social participation, however, it seems to be generally true that social participation tends to induce drinking.

The article reports on the social stratification and social mobility in Scandinavia. Scandinavia is set apart from the rest of Western Europe by common social characteristics and the Scandinavian countries are in all respects closer to each other than they are to the rest of Western Europe. The three attributes which carry prestige in Scandinavia are to pursue a non-manual occupation, to be a public employee and to possess a scholarly degree. A person's occupation is considered an important part of his identity. Common sense and sociological theory includes social power as a major stratification variable. It is quite unevenly distributed in Scandinavia. Education is not the only nor even the most frequently used avenue towards the achievement of higher status, but it does enjoy a position of high and growing importance in the mobility process. Wealth is also an important stratification variable. Research in occupational prestige is a post-war phenomenon in Scandinavia. The nobility has lost all formal prerogatives, but is still in existence in all Scandinavian countries, except Norway. The slaves have long since disappeared.

It is well known that calculations of infant mortality based upon the births of a particular calendar year are liable to give misleading results, especially when the birth rate is changing rapidly. In this paper the author discusses some methods by which this difficulty may be overcome and illustrates the differences in infant mortality which one finds when using refined rates by means of Scandinavian data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the phytosociology of Calluna-Arctostaphylos heaths in Scotland and Scandinavia, with focus on the Arctostaphyleto-Callunetum. Arctostaphyleto-Callunetum consists of Arctosphylos uva-ursi, Calluna vulgaris, Deschampsia flexuosa, Erica cinerea, Lathyrus montanus, Pyrola media, Vaccinium vitis-idaea and Hypnum cupressiforme. The association Arctostaphyleto-Callunetum forms a useful reference unit, but its abstract nature must be recognized as shown by alternative manifestations.

This article presents information on several papers published in different periodicals, which deal with the status of research on demography in Scandinavia as of 1974. Anyone who wants to get an insight into the current state of research on demography in Scandinavia should turn to the first issue 1972 of the periodical "The Scandinavian Economic History Review." Poul Thestrup investigates "Methodological Problems of a Family Reconstitution" on the basis of data from a Danish rural parish before 1800 and finds that the greatest merit of the technique of family reconstitution is in providing indicators of child mortality and marital fertility, its greatest drawback being the restriction of the method to those few for whom adequate information is available. Stale Dyndk surveys "Historical Demography in Norway 1660-1801" and points out that the figures suggest that evenness of growth was the chief feature in the period 1665-1801, wherefore the periods of stagnation and crisis evident in other European countries do not seem to have occurred. During the period 1750-1800, however, the national indicators show an accelerating increase of population and economic progress is registered in most regions. In a splendid and balanced account Ingrid Semmingsen sums up the latest findings on "Emigration from Scandinavia."

An attempt is made for a conceptualization of the functioning of the welfare-state as known in Scandinavia. A central thesis is that the state-apparatus has a certain degree of freedom to initiate actions within the constraints of a capitalistic economic system. This thesis rejects the idea of the state being neutral and independent as well as the idea of the total subordination of the state-apparatus under capitalist domination. Nor is the thesis accepted that there exists a harmonious co-existence between state-apparatus and monopolies. It is asserted that contradictions existing within a capitalistic society can be solved by state-invervention only through the creation of new contradictions. This is illustrated by means of the functioning of the public sector. It is finally asserted that the state-apparatus in order to maintain total capital has to restrict the actions of individual capitals. The theoretical and meta-theoretical consequences of this thesis are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the language gap in Scandinavia. Communication does not require participants to have identical languages. Despite the growing loss of efficiency in the communication process as language codes deviate, it is often astonishing how great a difference speakers can overcome if the will to understand is there. The elasticity of mutual comprehensibility is one of reasons for the difficulty of setting up any acceptable scale of language distance. One of the multilingual areas to which anthropological linguist Hans Wolf referred is the culture area popularly known as Scandinavia, where both languages and dialects constitute barriers to but do not wholly block communication. Danes, Norwegians, and Swedes expect to be understood by fellow Scandinavians when they use their own languages. At times, however, they are disappointed in their expectations; and the region as a whole offers many examples of what can be called semicommunication, the trickle of messages through a rather high level of code noise.

The article reports on the sociological studies of the family in Scandinavia. A study of one hundred families with children of ages 7-12 in a Stockholm suburb was carried out. A scale to measure the degree of child centeredness versus authoritarianism in what is called the ideology of upbringing by the parents was employed. Lower values on the scale indicated that the parent was more child centered. The working-class parents were more authoritarian than upper and middle class parents. A high degree of integration is characterized by warm and constant emotional contacts between parents and children, by common leisure time interests, by consistency in the requirements of children by parents and by stable parental habits and behavior patterns. A highly child-centered ideology of upbringing was associated with a high degree of family integration. It was also associated with interest in children and skill in handling them. It was found that those who saw their economic background as moderately frustrating placed the highest value on income, whereas those who had a very prosperous or very poor background placed a lower value on income.

The article focuses on the research on elections and the sociology of politics in the Northern Scandinavian countries. These countries have a long tradition of scholarly academic work on problems of government, administration and politics which mirrored the concerns of the central administrative bodies of the monarchies and issues of legitimation and normative regulation. The political forces in the Scandinavian countries have three basic processes of economic and social change which are the continuous strengthening of the position of the independent bourgeoisie of merchant capitalists and entrepreneurs, the growth over the same period of a money and market economy in agriculture and the rise of an organized class of working men in the cities and the countryside. The marked improvements made in the conduct of sample surveys in the design of interviews collates comparable tabulations for the differences between the countries in the cleavage bases of their voter alignments, polarization by socio-economic status and the major forces making for a reduction in the distinctiveness of the followers of different parties. The most critical of the between country differences in the party power balance would be the political alignments of the rising new middle classes.

This article reports that it is the fashion these days for popular writers to exploit the subject of sex, due to the intrinsic interest it holds. This article uses the scientific frame of reference to analyze the subject of sex viewed in cross-cultural perspective. Sex is a sensitive phenomenon, not only in the public view, but also as a research focus for pointing up differences across cultures. This latter fact was a major consideration in selecting it as the substantive side of a project which sought to compare normative systems. The focus of this article is on the contemporary sex norms of Scandinavia and the U.S. The sex norms of Denmark are known to be highly permissive; those of Midwestern U.S., moderately restrictive; and those of Mormon Country, highly restrictive. In Denmark, which is broadly typical of all of Scandinavia, sexual intercourse during the engagement is a tradition that goes back three or four centuries at least, and in recent years the practice has spread to include the "going steady" relationship; now as earlier, many Danes tend to wait for pregnancy before going ahead with the wedding.

The article reports on the phytosociology of Calluna-Arctostaphylos heaths in Scandinavia and Scotland. Calluna-Arctostaphylos heaths' study provides some insight into the nature of the vegetation and its response to factors of the environment. This plant communities' research were conducted using the techniques of association-analysis and ordination. The latter reveals misclassified stands, while the former suggests a basic division of the data on Hypericum pulchrum into two parts, herb-rich heaths in which it is present and herb-poor heaths where it is absent.

The article reports the phytosociology of Calluna-Arctostaphylos heaths in Scandinavia and Scotland. The study focuses on heaths in which Arctostaphylos uva-ursi and Calluna vulgaris occur together, which association has been named as the Arctostaphyleto-Callunetum by McVean & Ratcliffe. An overview of the research findings and the reasons for such is discussed. It also notes some of the proposed differential constants species including Campanula rotundifolia, Anemone nemorosa, Viola riviniana, and Hypericum pulchrum.

The article explores the distribution and ecology of plants in the circumpolar area in relation to historical factors. It stresses the survival problems of plants in Scandinavia, North Atlantic, and Greenland, with consideration on topography and other factors. It highlights a large number of maps presented by taxonomists and botanists showing peculiar plant distributions that resulted to a perglacial survival. The author concludes that history plays an important part in understanding the distributions of plants in the circumpolar area.

The article presents a macrosociological study of the Lappish minority in Sweden. When the Nordic countries that is Finland, Norway, and Sweden, launched their criticism of the politics of racist regimes, they received the response that the Nordic countries treatment of the Lapps was itself a form of racist policy. In the Nordic countries this charge was not taken seriously, and the rather sensitive question whether there might indeed be some taint of colonialism in the treatment of the Lapps was never subjected to scrutiny. Of course, the differences are quite obvious if one limits ones perspective to the present-day situation and general policy. In the first place, the Lapps are a small minority in the Nordic countries, whereas the oppressed groups in South Africa and Rhodesia constitute the vast majority of the population. Secondly, policy in the Nordic countries is aimed at assimilation and the eventual disappearance of the minority as such, whereas the racist regimes in question seek to maintain segregation of the various groups and to relegate the colored population to an exploited status.

The article focuses on a student's perception of contemporary sociology in Scandinavia. A Scandinavian student's way of looking at sociology may in many ways differ from that of an experienced scholar in the field. The student is often more interested in close perspectives, the teaching situation and policies of his or her particular university, and job opportunities; whereas his more professional counterpart and mentor is more concerned about metatheories, the relationship between science and society, and publishing. In addition, the scholar who gained his laurels a long time ago places greater emphasis on exploring deeper into his own specialized or subspecialized field of interest. This article then will reflect a Danish student's impression of contemporary sociology in Scandinavia. While primary emphasis will be placed on the Danish scene, with what is going on in the other Scandinavian countries being treated more briefly, there is no reason to believe that the dynamics of the various Scandinavian student movements and ideologies differ greatly from one another, nor in any significant way from what is occurring in other Western societies.

The article focuses on Scandinavian sociology. Sociology in the Scandinavian countries that is Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden does not have its roots in national traditions of speculative theorizing about the nature of man and society. The absence of a long intellectual history of significant social philosophy and macrosociological speculation is a conspicuous feature of the four countries. This characteristic of both Scandinavian sociology and the Scandinavian societies can to some extent be explained sociologically. To state that Scandinavian sociology does not rest on national traditions of social speculation is not to say that sociology in these four countries is without national roots. It is, however, striking that the forerunners of present-day sociology belonged to a strongly empirical tradition. In all four Scandinavian countries there is a long and honorable record of studies in government, statistics, social welfare, and ethnography dealing with sociological problems. When sociology in its present form was established at the Scandinavian universities after World War II, it developed in an academic milieu with a strongly positivistic orientation.

The article focuses on Swedish sociology. A number of general surveys of Swedish sociology have been published. Despite differences in formulation, opinions concerning the principal trends in Swedish sociology show a broad measure of agreement. Historically, a quite natural starting point is that the Nordic countries were outside the mainstream of Europe when industrialism came into its own, while the great classics of sociology were written in the countries at the center of this process, where the dominant trends of industrial society first emerged in full outline. One might say that circumstances in the Nordic countries were not as favorable for potential social thinkers to found an intellectual tradition of their own. The late 1960s was a time of radical reexamination of sociology in many countries, including Sweden, where the reaction against traditional sociology provoked debates around two central issues: soft data and value judgments, to use sociologist Ander Gullberg's phrases. Although the debates bore features peculiar to Sweden and referred to specifically Swedish issues, they may nonetheless be regarded as offshoots of the sharply increased international interest in hermeneutics and in Marxist-inspired critical sociology.

In a vast region in Scandinavia, a monotonous and extremely slow deposition of anaerobic mud persisted through the Late Cambrian. After a long time with no or very little sedimentation, deposition was recommenced in the Early Ordovician at an equally slow rate, but with calcium carbonate as the main component, pH at the bottom Was so Iow that the deposition of the carbonate in the long run only just outweighed the solution, which occurred frequently and sometimes during long periods. By oscillating solution and precipitation in the pores, lime mud could set into limestone on the Sea-bed. By more definite phases of solution, most of the limestone could be reduced to a marl bed with remains of undissolved limestone. Single limestone beds formed Over such marl were apt to glide and deform into anticlines, which rose from the seabottom to heights up to 20 cm. These folds were rarely destroyed mechanically, which Speaks for a tranquil bottom environment. Their crests were, however, chemically corroded in the same way as discontinuity surfaces, which were also formed at many intervals. The processes by which the discontinuity surfaces were formed never affected a fold mechanically. The corrosion of the fold crests and of the discontinuity surfaces took place on the bottom of the sea, at safe distance from the surface. The corrosion was most frequently associated with the formation, and maintenance, of a glauconite skin. The abundance of preserved fold structures indicates that the region was relatively deep under the sea for most of the Early Ordovician. Later on, already in the middle-Late Arenigian, the sea may have become shallower. The findings are extrapolated, with some probable interpretations and new observations, to include a hypothetical explanation for the passage from black shale to limestone facies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focuses on the employment of women in Scandinavia. Independence of women; Dissatisfaction over the social position of women; Division of labor between sexes.

Describes the state of speech education in Scandinavia as of 1961. Teacher training in speech education; Standards of speaking in the country; Ways in which students are trained in public speech.

Recent research on political dimensions in the Scandinavian party systems at five non-electorate "levels" of dimensional analysis (content analysis of party programs, content analysis of expressions of party stances on current issues, positions taken by the parliamentary parties as behaving units, roll call analysis and interviews of individual legislators, and interviews with leaders and members of party organizations) justify the rejection of the unidimensional spatial model of party competition. Data on the social structure, attitudes and opinions, and voting behavior of the supporters of different parties provide indirect information about the dimensions of political cleavage. More directly, the "perceived party dimensions" can be concluded from aggregates of individual assessments for which the parties as such are the stimuli. Averaged rank orderings of the parties provide ordinal measures that have been used as inputs for multidimensional scaling techniques. An experiment of measuring the mutual distances of political parties in Finland used percentages of the second and the two last party choices as measures of party distance. A qualitative analysis of the exceptions to regular orderings along the basic left/right dimension suggested the presence of six additional political dimensions: the producers and agriculture/the consumers and urban industries; the established parties/the temporary small parties; recognized and noted centers/the "forgotten people" (populist dimension); Finnish-Swedish; communism/non-communism; and victorious/losing. Three developments can be envisaged in future dimensional analysis of multiparty systems: comparisons across countries, comparisons between different levels in the political system, and predictions of emerging political changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the stability problems in the Scandinavian countries including Sweden, Denmark, Norway and other European countries during the post world war. It focuses on stabilization policy carried out in Sweden during the period 1955-59, relating its application to other Scandinavian countries. It says that very little attention is paid to the need to isolate the results of the various parameter changes. Studies made during 1955 and 1956 among a number of industrial corporations of the effects on investment plans of the separate measures introduced during 1955 give interesting statistics, but the validity of the replies can very much be doubted. Another criticism of the type of economic policy is that during both the upswing and the downswing, it has involved a combination of inflationary pressure and controls of the credit and capital market. Moreover, one can look upon the retardation of production growth during 1958 as being a consequence of a certain lack of effectiveness in economic policy. The decline in output that was experienced in various sectors dependent on exports had not been counteracted sufficiently by greater production in housing and other construction activity.

The present article is an attempt to develop, under highly simplifying assumptions, the plant cost curve from the production functions of all the various stages of which the plant is composed. Indivisibility of durable equipment is emphasized in accordance with some very early Scandinavian ideas in the theory of cost, dating back to 1924. One conclusion is that the case examined, which may well be typical of modern mass production, constitutes another item on the long list of exceptions to the rule that profit maximization implies the equality of marginal cost and marginal revenue. The individual stage is a convenient starting point in the study of plant cost. The output of the individual stage is measured in stage units produced per unit of time, and stage units of different stages are of course, qualitatively different. The individual stage consists of a number of units of a single durable factor. The capacity of the individual durable factor is the maximum number of stage units that can be produced per unit of time by employing one unit of that factor. Plant unit cost under varying technique is also described. To maximize profits, the firm must know the demand side as well as the cost side. Factor prices and demand for all the periods within the life of the durable equipment will have to be known anyway.

A procedure for inferring the extent to which female cohorts are characterized by ‘control’ or ‘non-control’ of fertility is reviewed. This procedure uses census-type data giving women classified by age at marriage and number of children ever born to yield estimates of numbers or percentages ever controlling or attempting to control fertility. It is suggested that comparative analysis of ‘social strategies of family formation’ of cohorts be carried out in terms of cohorts' joint distribution by age at marriage and fertility control characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discusses the role of the actor and various aspects of rehearsal and performance in the nineteenth century prenaturalistic theater of Scandinavia. Different genres of drama, their rehearsals and ensemble acting in the nineteenth century; Attitude of the actors, their acting skills, specialization and approach towards dramatization; Conclusion about the overall image of the nineteenth century actor.

The article examines the phytosociology of Calluna-Arctostaphylos heaths in Scotland and Scandinavia with focus on the North-East Scottish heaths using the techniques of association-analysis and ordination in a complementary fashion. Calluna-Arctostaphylos heaths were located mainly by spotting from the road areas of heath having a physiognomy suggesting that they might contain Arctostaphylos uva-ursi. Within the herb-rich heaths represented by the group of 19 stands, there is a distinction in the behavior of herbs, with such species as Galium verum, Lotus corniculatus and Thymus drucei differing from the others.