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The article reflects on the pursuit of pure science by the scientific community in the U.S. Indications showed that this endeavor is becoming more and more expensive. The authors of this paper attempts to defend one special kind of pure science, the physics of elementary particles. This is the branch of physics that looks for the fundamental constituents of matter. They proposed that in any intelligent discussion of the impact of pure science in society, it must be based upon knowledge of the development of modern physics and of the role of the study of elementary particles in the history of science.

In this paper we ,have approached the problem by estimating ex post the social benefits resulting from the support given by the National Research Development Corporation (N.R.D.C.) to the development of a potato harvester. In doing this we have encountered difficulties of estimation and we have gained some insight into the real problems which one would face if one had been trying to foresee these developments ex ante. Obviously each project would present its own set of problems in estimating future benefits, but the conceptual similarities in these problems made the study of a particular project useful. The paper has shown that in certain cases and under certain assumptions a monetary value can be put on the national benefits arising from innovation--the net benefits to purchasers and royalty income to public bodies. Detailed analysis showed that: (a) Royalty income (the private gain to the public bodies) from the successful innovation covered direct expenditure on it. (b) Royalty income was quite inadequate to cover also expenditure on failures, which are a feature of the overall process of innovation. (c) If the net benefits to farmers are included, then public support for this series of inventions seems justified. (d) Although an arbitrary assumption was made about the time saved due to N.R.D.C., it revealed the importance of rapid development of innovation. If the N.I.A.E. potato harvester had been delayed longer than about two years beyond what actually occurred we are doubtful whether the firm would have found the investment worthwhile. (e) By the time the bulk of royalties had been received interest charges formed a large part (52%) of the cumulative cost: first costs were incurred about 10 years before first benefits were received. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reports on research publications related to dentistry and the International Association for Dental Research. The article also discusses William J. Gies, the founder and first editor of the periodical, and the William J. Gies Foundation for the Advancement of Dentistry. It is noted that the foundation funds research papers.

The article makes a forecast focuses on expenditures for scientific research and development in the U.S. The concept of research and development, includes basic and applied research in sciences and in engineering and design and development of prototypes and processes. It does not include nontechnological activities and technical service, such as quality control, routine product testing, market research, sales promotion, sales service, geological and geophysical exploration or research in the social sciences or psychology. Forecasting is a key element of business planning. Also, it was found that an attempt to make a forecast can be quite as good an analytical device and a better teaching device than an analysis concentrated on the historical record. Defense-type research and development expenditures will increase at a slower rate during the next decade than they have in recent years. The average rate of return on research and development has been well above the return on investment in plant and equipment during the past decade.

Funding of research projects is considered as encompassing three stages: (1) an initial short run plan for funding based upon projected regular demands and availability subject to random deviations; (2) adjustment of the initial plan to take into account the actual regular demands and availability and the funding of significant break-throughs which occur at random intervals preempting other demands; and (3) a plan for longer-run availability and demands which constitute a "posture" desired subsequent to the funding adjustments of (2). The essence of the distribution of the unexpected demands is multi-modality with low probability of occurrence but high resource demand when they do occur. This approach represents a substantial departure from the usual planning model development which produces only an optimal plan based on forecasted developments without provision for adjustment when the forecasted events actually materialize and additional unexpected demands are placed on resources. The adjustment process explored here—which provides the mechanism for optimal implementation of the original plan or control of resource allocation—enables optimal response to information received in "real-time" avoiding the frequently observed over-or underresponse to receipt of such information without reference to the impact of the interim decision on future capabilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides information on the determinants, prospects, and relation of industrial research and development expenditures to size of firm and inventive output in the U.S. A simple model explaining the level of research and development expenditures of a company in an industry where government financing plays a relatively small role is presented. The behavior of research and development expenditures from 1945 to 1958 for 35 companies is described. It also analyzes the relationship between a company's size and its expenditures to research and development, as well as to the number of significant inventions or innovations it produced.

The article discusses a model for funding interrelated research and development projects under uncertainty. Business enterprises have trouble finding funding levels for research and development projects and are often assuming that each project is independent and should be evaluated as such. Research on this topic has shown that research projects are often interdependent, meaning, that progress on one project lessens the work on another or that the completion of one project changes the market situation of another.

The article discusses ways to overcome biases based on "not-at-home" calls in population surveys. The author says that a method previously developed has the benefit of speed and lower field costs where calls are made every evening of the week, except Sunday. This method can have limitations because of the variations in weighting. If there are many people home only one or two evenings out of six, tolerances will be large; if there are few, tolerances will be small. The author's plan is to eliminate the not-at-home bias by accepting additional tolerance limits. He suggests combining callbacks with weighting to maximize survey results per dollar.

The article focuses on issues and topics related to a federally-funded supersonic transport (SST) project in the U.S. This project was first advocated by the aircraft industry and agencies concerned with the aviation capabilities of the U.S. Air Force. The program obtained full federal commitment as a result of a general conviction that the supersonic transport represented the next inevitable advance in commercial aviation and the fear that Soviet or Anglo-French domination of the SST market would be a blow to American prestige. Upon examination of the policy-making process which led President John F. Kennedy to decide to go ahead with the project, one can find the seriousness of two of the major environmental problems associated with the SST, including sonic boom and engine noise.

The article presents a British view concerning the American and Russian space programs since the Apollo 11 landing on the Moon in July 1969. Two major events in space marked 1971, both of them signs that America's formidable lead in space exploration is being whittled away by the incredibly dynamic program of the Soviet Union. This was the first time the Soviet Union had been ahead since the spring of 1958. Following the Apollo 11 mission, the impetus of the U.S. program has been lost in a desire to cut spending. No similar reluctance to spend appears to restrict Soviet space ambitions.

The article discusses the controversies arising from the "strike" research campaign of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts, launched on March 4, 1969 and subsequently discussed in a panel on March 8 of the same year. According to the organizers, the controversies did not affect the campaign since the primary objective of the organization is to inaugurate a movement. Questions raised by different social groups includes the type of movement to create and the source of fundings for the established movement. It has been an obvious knowledge in the American society that government-sponsored research in scientific fields accounts to 75% of the funds of university research projects, much of the money came directly from the country's Defense Department.

The article discusses the development of research and development programs in the United States. The National Science Foundation has issued a series of reports on how it has carried out its statutory responsibility in developing the national policy for the promotion of basic research and education in the sciences and in evaluating the scientific research programs by the agencies of the federal government. An action has also been completed by the Congress on the appropriation bills to picture out the financial structure of science for the past years and to know its prospects in the future.

A study of professional employees in two large treatment-oriented organizations reveals a contradiction between the avowed objectives of program research and the acceptance of its findings by those engaged in the program. The ideology of science, which favors the interpretation and communication of research results, often conflicts with organizational mores. These mores favor symbolic research—the ritualistic avowal of the worthwhileness of research about agency problems, coupled with objections to its substance—the advancement of knowledge. Even those expressing a high priority for the use of agency funds or staff time to do research were reluctant to interpret or publish research findings. Interpretation readiness was greater for "encouraging findings" than for "discouraging findings." Only a minority expressed an attitude favorable to taking the risks which are believed to exist when information with evaluative implications is widely disseminated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Five procedures used by philanthropic foundations of the risk-capital type are identified and analyzed as organizational defenses, i.e., administrative procedures meant in part to reduce the foundations' vulnerability to control by their client professional groups, e.g. universities. The analysis reveals that such defenses undermine as well as bolster foundation autonomy, and specifies some basic characteristics of professions in industrial societies that make it likely that such double-edged effects will be generated in all organizations having relations with professional groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It's time to shatter the popular corporate legend of the invincible scientist who can do no wrong, and it should be the mission of the research administrator to lure these gifted "brains" down from Cloud Nine and into the essential business of producing marketable products, this Engineering Director believes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article analyzes several problems faced by the U.S. federal government on scientific research coordination. According to the Subcommittee on Reorganization and International Organizations' study led by Hubert H. Humphrey, the U.S. federal government's financial support for scientific research, development, and testing amounted to $8.1 billion a year. However, the federal government found out that no complete inventory exists of the program in research and development. Furthermore, there is no central inventory of projects and no attention was given to the lack of information on project control. Another difficulty, is the increase in administrative work necessary to make published results available, as financial support also increases.

The article discusses the first part of the founding history of the American Institute of Biological Sciences (AIBS) Journal from 1951 to 1964. AIBS first published the AIBS Bulletin, an outgrowth of its newsletter, on January 1, 1951. It was designed to be published quarterly with a fifth issue that served as the Annual Meeting Program. For the next 12 years, the Bulletin became a 48-page bi-monthly publication. During the Scientific Revolution from 1951 to 1963, federal aid to research helped flourish the industry. However, an internal crisis within AIBS occurred due to lack of administrative organization as a result of growing federal aid to research. The AIBS Bulletin was renamed and reformatted into a monthly journal called "BioScience" on January 1, 1964.

The article reports on the grantsmanship game titled "Funds for Undergraduate Biology Departments and How to Find Them" from the Commission on Undergraduate Education in the Biological Sciences in the U.S. It is explained that the steps in the process of obtaining funds include defining goals and priorities, locating the right funding agency, negotiating with the agency and writing the proposal itself. The acceptable format for the publication includes an abstract, a cover page, an introduction, the body of the proposal, a brief description of personnel and institutional setting, a statement of the duration of project, and the budget.

The increased use of statistics in reporting sociological research is viewed by many as an index of the growing maturity of sociology as a science. On the other hand, it is viewed as a movement toward pseudo-science by those who feel that sociologists are using statistics pro forma, with little understanding of the mathematical assumptions upon which the statistical measures are predicated. The increasing use of statistical measures in sociological research is related to problems that sociologists encounter when, seeking funding for, their research. The major supporters of sociological research seek useful knowledge from their expenditures, and much of the successful research they have supported in other disciplines makes considerable use of statistical reasoning. In essence, sociologists no doubt feel they must structure a research proposal so as to demonstrate its scientific merit, and use of statistics is one of the more evident indices of scientific merit. A broader implication for sociology is that specialties which receive substantial funding are more likely to expand than specialties which receive little funding.

The article focuses on the trend of corporations funding extensively for research to improve upon their profit margins. It is estimated that business units in the U.S. are spending nine billion dollars annually on research activities. Firms in some industries such as pharmaceuticals, chemicals, and electronics depend upon research for their survival, and it is not uncommon to find companies in these fields spending more for research each year than their reported earnings. Since these expenditures have reached extreme proportions, the accounting treatment of research costs has become a vitally important factor in determining the income of the companies involved. It is concluded that the procedures currently used in accounting for research and development do not present a realistic picture of the economic consequences of this activity. They also are inconsistent with the principles which are generally applied to other areas of accounting. In addition, they provide management with an incentive for cutting back research expenditures although such curtailment might have a deleterious effect upon the long-range position of the company.

This article expresses concerns over emerging bureaucratic trends in sociological research. The author states that major changes are taking place in the American sociology research. These are the large-scale organization and financing of research and the emergence of "team" or collective-type research endeavors. It seems that the "days of one-man research are over and "Group" or "team" endeavors, carried on within a highly structured institutional setting, have become the accepted means of formulating theories, testing hypotheses, and furthering knowledge. The merits of proposed research are judged largely by two criteria--the cost of the undertaking and the number of participants. Though in this process the large corporation's monopoly on groupism and "togetherness" has been broken but a number of liabilities have been ignored also, which are endemic to team research endeavors. Sociologists have silenced their voices to the limitations imposed on them by the very institutional structure essential to the collective type of inquiry.

The article reports developments pertaining to the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC). The establishment of a CEC Foundation for Exceptional Children was approved by the 1971 Delegate Assembly. The CEC has received several requests to take stands on the issues concerning the improvement of the education of exceptional children. The 1971 Delegate Assembly has authorized the Policy Statement on Governmental Affairs. The council has recommended an additional federal funding for research projects that will contribute in advancing the instruction of exceptional children and youth.

The article offers the author's comments on the conditions under which biologists in Latin America are obliged to live and function. According to her, in most of the countries development in biology occurs in steps marred by instances of regressive political changes which interferes with human, hence scientific, freedom. However, she says that it would be ignorance to imagine that Latin America has no modern tools of research.

A bidding model is developed and used to examine alternative contract research proposal preparation strategies. Expected profits due to sales from initial and follow-on production orders are related to proposal preparation cost, contract value, and the probability of contract award. Limited engineering resources may be allocated to proposal preparation effort so as to maximize total expected profits. The model is tested and applied in the proposal preparation activity of a company in the aerospace industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses methods of financing and costing a research and development (R&D) department within a firm. The three methods of financing R&D are: the lump sum allocation which leaves the choice of work to the R&D manager or project committee; ex post allocation expenditure decided by R&D manager, and finance by charging use. The first is suited to basic and applied research and to development projects not identified with existing departments. The second method is suitable to development work identified with and accepted by an existing department, and the third to service work for departments. The authors suggest that a suitable strategy can best be found by classifying projects into assessment categories and attaching a suitable financing method to each category.

The article discusses British science policy in the mid-1960s, with focus given to the themes of scientific research finance, the distribution of funds between different scientific fields, and the training of scientific researchers and technical support staff. The author notes the relatively small amount of public spending on science in Great Britain during this period and argues that this spending is largely wasted on the electronics industry and national defense. He distinguishes between funding for solid state physics, electronic physics, theoretical chemistry, and astronomy, and emphasizes the impact of scientific research on human life. Also discussed is the need for more technicians and improved status for engineers within intellectual circles.

The article provides an overview on the hearings held by the House of Subcommittee on Science, Research and Development in the U.S. from July 7 to September 17, 1970. The hearings focused on a plea for stability in research funding and whether a future structured national science policy is desirable and what the constituent elements of that policy should be. The basic premises of this policy were the mutual dependency of government on science and science on government, the close ties between the government and universities and federal funding for research and development. It mentions that no one quarreled with this philosophy and questioned its place in the nation's future science policy.

This article presents developments in the field of economics and sociology, as of July 1, 1952. The book "Handbook of Statistical Methods for Demographers," by A.J. Jaffe, presents a selection and condensation of the lectures, exercises and readings given by the author in a course on statistics for specialists in population statistics. The book "Practical Financial Statement Analysis," by Roy A. Foulke, describes the technique of sales analysis on .a basis that is applicable to small businesses, that of comparative and internal analysis of balance sheets and profit-and-loss statements of commercial and industrial enterprises of all sizes, and that of analysis of surplus accounts. In another development, four grants-in-aid to graduate students at California, Cornell and Columbia universities have been announced by the Robert Schalkenbach Foundation. The present grants initiate a program by which the Foundation aims to encourage study of the land question in colleges and universities and to increase the existing data on the subject.

The article addresses the growing shortage of scientists in developing countries. It is claimed that for every 91 scientists, engineers and technicians in the 33 technically developed countries, there are only nine in the 84 developed countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America. The shortage of scientists and technologists in developing countries is complementary with the small amounts actually spent on research and development. Clearly, there is a need for these countries to maintain and expand the number of their scientists. Thus, proper education, training and fraternal encouragement will certainly be needed for the advancement of science to be set up. Moreover, international scientific cooperation will be achieved when scientists work together for the advancement of science.

The article examines the memorandum issued by U.S. President John F. Kennedy to all government agencies regarding the standards of conduct for scientific consultants on February 9, 1962. The memorandum will insure the scientist's compliance with the conflict of interest statutes which will also requires advisors to keep the government informed about private financial interests. On the other hand, the memorandum aims to clear up the interpretations of the statutes. Several basic conflict of interests have been identified by the author. These include the two year prohibition of activities following the termination of the government service and the prohibition of officers or employees from receiving compensation for their service.

The article reports on issues and topics concerning international efforts towards the peaceful use of atomic energy. The second U.N. International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy in Geneva on September 13, 1958, brought scientists from 69 countries and 9 agencies together to review accomplishments made since 1955 in the utilization of nuclear energy. At the second general assembly of the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria on September 22 to October 4, 1959, the U.S. offered to pay the cost of a worldwide research program in atomic energy.

This article highlights the emerging crisis in federal funding for social sciences research in the U.S. as of August 1971. In examining the government's statistics on research support for sociology during the past two years, one is at fist impressed by a seeming surge. In 1970 the total research funding for sociology was listed at $46.3 million; this increased to $70.8 million in 1971. The overwhelming source of the jump comes from a leap of almost $29 million in the Office of Economic Opportunity's (OEO) budget for sociological research, but this represents a major share of the total noneconomic research and experimentation program of OEO, most of which is conducted on an in-house basis and virtually none of it by sociologists. The fact is that research funds in sociology have recently leveled off after a decade of growth. Over the past three years, they have remained virtually constant, and at a time of rising research costs, this means a net reduction in effective research support.

The article presents information on research and development (R&D) expenditures in the U.S. It is stated that R&D expenditures for the U.S. are expected to rise from $24 million in 1967 to $25 million in 1968. According to a report by the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF), the average annual growth rate of R&D expenditures is decreasing. NSF started its survey program in 1953, which covers operating expenditures for all the research and development carried out by organizations in various sectors of the U.S. economy, including universities and colleges, industry, federal government agencies, and nonprofit organizations. The article also presents information on a NSF report on scientists and engineers who immigrated to the U.S. for permanent residence.

The article focuses on the reports of Heyworth Committee concerned with teaching and research in economics in Great Britain. In 1962-63 the Committee estimates that in all about £5 million was being spent on research in social sciences. Of this, about £2.9 million was financing university research. About £0.6 million was financing independent non-university research institutes. The research organizations of the government absorbed about £10 million. Official support of research in dependent overseas territories, work in technical colleges and by various other bodies and individuals absorbed the final £0.5 million. Of this total, possibly as much as £10 million may have been going to university and institute research in economics, including the research time of teachers. The Committee proposed that 400 awards for postgraduate research and advanced-course studentship should be made in 1965-66 as against about 220 in 1964. It also recommended the creation of 20 research fellowships.