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This article discusses various papers on economic developments, which were published in the May 1, 1953 issue of the journal "American Economic Review." The basic difficulty in the theory of economic development is the necessity of dealing with behavioral relations and not merely logical deductions from simple assumptions. There is widespread agreement on a minimal definition of economic growth as an increase in national product per capita. Another vital conceptual element in a theory of economic development would be an emphasis on the scarcity of resources. Since it is not possible to pursue all lines, allocating enough resources to all four categories to ensure adequate change, the problem is to make sure that a given resource allocation to any one of the four variables also provides enough support to the other three to ensure sustained and cumulative progress. In this shrinking world it is equally important to lay stress upon the values of international co-operation and interdependence. Such a viewpoint may run counter to prevalent currents of nationalism and national economic planning.

This paper deals with the adequacy of natural resource supplies to support an indefinite continuation of high rates of economic growth in advanced industrial economies. This paper is inspired by a recent spate of apocalyptic literature purporting to show that natural resource constraints impose an insuperable obstacle to such growth. The author suggests that this extreme pessimism is unwarranted because it attaches insufficient weight to an impressive array of adaptive mechanisms through which a market economy responds to shifting patterns of resource scarcity. Most important, he argues that technological change is, in the long run, the most powerful mechanism of response. The purpose of the author's recourse to history is to provide some insight into the manner in which economies possessed of a high degree of technological versatility have adapted to changing patterns of resource scarcities. The author notes that arguments drawn from the past history of countries which have demonstrated a high degree of technological innovativeness are not likely to be directly applicable to countries where such skills and talents have been notably lacking. The author believes that history can an insuperable obstacle to such growth.

This article discusses some conceptual aspect of regional economic growth. One way to know the reason why regional economic growth takes place is to examine the explanatory content of its principal theories, the development stages and the export base theories. This paper proposes to use elements from the development stages and the export base theories for the construction of a conceptual framework to channel these thoughts and investigations. Hopefully, insights may then be generated to contribute to better theory development. In the conceptual framework outlined, attention is focused on the form and nature of relationships between phenomena associated with regional economic growth. Important explanatory concepts, such as income elasticity of demand and associated Engel functions or curves for individual products and regional trade, are examined. A growth of output per person may be viewed as depending partly on the natural resources available in terms of their quality, quantity, cost, and allocation and partly on human behavior.

The purpose of the present paper is to examine the growth of Gross Domestic Product in five Latin American countries (LAC), Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia and Mexico in the period 1940-1964 in terms of hypotheses about possible explanations of the residual source of growth in these countries. The development and appraisal of various hypotheses considered is based on a comparison of the rate of growth of productivity among the several Latin American countries and a comparison between these countries and a group of more economically advanced countries. For LAC, it is convincing that the underutilization is not due to inadequate demand. It is therefore more fruitful to assume that the ability to exploit capacity is an important factor in potential output and that changing utilization is a key variable explaining productivity in LAC. Also evidence has been presented which leads to the conclusion that changes in the rate of growth of productivity in LAC could, in periods after 1945, be accounted for largely by the ability of LAC to utilize all its available resources.

The article focuses on differences in economic development between the United States and Latin America. The ownership of a landed estate in colonial Latin America was a source of wealth and was a mark of social distinction. From the ranks of the landed families came many of the leading civilian officials, the high army officers, and prominent church authorities. It was the landed aristocracy that comprised the top layer of the social structure in colonial Latin America. In Latin America, a strong impulse was given to the commercialization of economic life. In the United States, the system of small landholdings which took hold during the colonial period was continued and extended after independence through the disposal of public domain by the federal government. The wide distribution of land ownership in the United States epitomizes the dominant middle-class character of American social organization. The broad middle-class market in this country was a potent force in the development of mass production methods in manufacturing. Social system of the United States attracted immigrants, adding their manpower and skills to the productive capacity of the country. No country in Latin America has had such a fine combination of physical resources and conditions to work with as the United States.

The article focuses on the transformation of resources in a modern metropolis in the U.S. It discusses the image of the downtown as an instrument for industrialization. However, alteration of resources should be considered in realizing such improvements in every city. Despite the sacrifices, the urge of realizing such development in metropolis area should continue to perform even when its environment is already populated with various cultural changes. In such, metropolis is being used as an option to menace resource scarcity and depletion. Nevertheless, the high demand of finding a solution in dealing the issue of critical resource has been discussed.

The article focuses on the author's perspective on the suggestion that the economically underdeveloped nations should be giving more attention to solar energy development and not concentrating all their hopes on atomic energy. Because of the availability of other energy resources at lower cost, solar energy applications are only of marginal significance in the foreseeable future in the industrialized nations. The author suggests that solar energy development programs should be pushed through by United Nations' facilities and the U.S. government for the greatest benefit of the people who are striving for economic and social betterment.

Man's relationship to the natural environment and nature's influence upon human life are among the oldest topics of speculation. Until modern times the major reason for concern was the prospect of "diminishing returns." It was thought that population and economic growth would press against natural resource limits, and that economic welfare would fall to subsistence levels. !n modern times in developed nations the prospect of "diminishing returns" has been avoided. Population increase has abated to rates which promise stability in population numbers. Technology, capital accumulation, and improvements in labor force have yielded "increasing returns." Per capita output grows at 2 or 3 % per year. The modern concern is quality of environment and quality of life. The technology, industrialization and agglomeration which have yielded increasing returns of goods per capita have side effects. These are pollution and crowding, increased needs for public goods, expanded monopoly in the market places, and dilemmas of choice from affluence. The task for modem societies is to bend their enlarged technology and productive power to improving quality of environment and, more generally, quality of life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An analysis of actual economic interdependence will endeavor to find out how far the process of economic self sufficiency has gone, how far it may be expected to go before it causes too great a pressure on the standard of living of various countries, and how much regimentation it would entail. People are living in an age in which many governments control the economic forces to an unprecedented degree and utilize them to make their countries as far as possible economically self sufficient. Today people witness great nations using all their energies and resources to create substitutes in order to reduce imports. If the tendencies which at present prevail in a large part of the world should continue, people have before them the vision not only of some undernourished nations with low standards of living but also regimentation of production and consumption, and of whole populations turned into automatons whose tastes of food, clothing, and entertainment are dictated by the government or the party in power.

THE OCEANS yield an economic surplus. Where and how this surplus is deployed sets the stage for further development. Better knowledge of the oceans will be immaterial if market influences and institutions supporting it are not changed to allow further participation by others in the oceans' surplus. The increased international interest in the oceans opens the possibility of a qualitative change as well as a quantitative change. There is no reason to be satisfied with the production pattern emanating from the traditional political-economic relations. Mass production while technologically and economically sound places a premium on conformity of demand. The diversities inherent in marine resource development denote a demand spectrum ranging from the sophisticated industrial societies of the West to the simple island peoples of the Pacific depending on marine resources for their basic sustenance. Mass production will not provide the base for a viable continuance of these latter groups without a continuing inducement to change the institutions governing the social structure of these peoples. Is the social disruption and possible destruction of a people worth the extra minerals or fisheries exploited for an industrial economy? Will communist marine-oriented nations accept the private development orientation of the capitalist nations? Such questions are the "stuff" that must be faced in the creation of the institutional structure for undergirding and supporting the development of the oceans. The problems of terrestrial resource development such as its uneven development pattern, concentration of productive processes and dilution of environmental quality have generated rising social turmoil. The need for more markets and raw materials in spatially separated wealthy countries has allowed the old development forces to continue with little change. Resource development of the oceans will place capitalist, socialist, and communist States together in a common property resource setting for a unique chance to develop an operational form for a new institutional structure. This ethical production and distribution mix may not replace our own capitalist structure but it may supplement that structure with the benefits of the other systems all within tile common bond of marine resource development. In other words, the pragmatic necessity for working out the development of the world's oceans can provide the arena for forming a rigorously and ethically constructed framework of social welfare that will account for other social structures, development levels and qualitative dimensions. To ignore the promise of this pragmatic effort is to leave all to random events in a context of severe nationalism. What will the record show after the present official decade of marine resource development? Will a fully developed ocean be one with nothing in it, one unfit for anything? The marine life and the marine environment are international livestock on an international range. Will all the people of the world be able to use the oceans over and over again? Or is the imminent death of Lake Erie the forerunner to the death of the world's marine resources? The oceans include the last large resource reservoir readily available. Their inherent qualities provide a chance to innovate socially for the benefit of all mankind. The important problem is posed by the technical efficiencies which must operate within a structure creating distribution inefficiences. Development must divest itself of these distribution inefficiencies by some structural change; it cannot continue to be concerned solely with production. The potential successes of marine resource development are too important to allow a set of social failures to be created. Mere resource development is no goal. A synthesis is needed of the essence of resource development together with the restructuring of its ownership and operation so as to serve the vast potential clientele base from which it would derive its support and which would direct its thrust. Can the development of marine resources rise to the challenge of being a unifier rather than a separator of mankind? The coming decade will pro- vide the answer (19). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article comments on the economic development of the U.S. The basis for expansion in an economy as a whole, the general conditions of successful investment, are undeveloped natural resources, a growing population and technological advance. The reasons for the rapid economic development of North America up to the first world war were the excellent climate, the vast supply of land, minerals and water power, and the settlement of the country by colonists from those regions of the earth where the industrial arts were most advanced. The improved industrial methods applicable to the rich resources of the new world were probably the causal factor in the rapid growth of population. And population growth, if it coincides with new and free or cheap land, is a factor making for investment opportunities. Thus the growth and westward migration of the American people meant an expanding market for building materials and equipment for farms, mines, and transportation systems. Population growth and technology react on each other.

The article presents a discussion related to altering the growth of the economy's productive potential, when success in maintaining fairly full utilization of labor and other resources is assumed. It is also necessary to find ways to validate the high-employment assumption, but that is outside the present discussion. The article is also concerned with ways to raise the growth rate of real national income or product. Certain characteristics of these output measures somewhat limit the ways available to raise their growth rate. They preclude raising the growth rate by shifting resources so as to produce things that are more urgently wanted, for example, by eliminating distortions in the pattern of output introduced by excise taxes, monopoly or farm programs. Again, the treatment of quality change in the price indexes bars raising the future high-employment growth rate of measured output by developing new or better final products more rapidly. The author uses index of real national income, which is the same thing as the index of real net national product except that components are weighted by factor cost rather than market price, in order to measure economic growth.

The article deals with the development of entrepreneurship. Discussion of economic development, since the revival of interest in the late forties, almost invariably starts with the acknowledgement that economic growth depends on a complex of interrelated factors. With this out of the way, the tendency is to focus on a single key factor not the only, but the most important, determinant of growth. The emphasis at various times and by various authors has been on technical knowledge, ideological fervor, natural resources, governmental organization, motives and attitudes, and capital. Emphasis has recently shifted to the key role of decision-making innovators, particularly in industry-in a word, entrepreneurs. Stress on the importance of entrepreneurs hardly qualifies one as innovator in economics. The industrial entrepreneur is a distinct personality type. At the least, he must believe that change is possible and can be brought about by individuals, and he must be motivated to action bringing it about.

Any analysis of the natural resources of Guatemala at once suggests an underdeveloped economy. Fertile volcanic soils, extensive hardwood forests, promising mineral deposits and hydroelectric potential may readily be counted as blessings to be turned to good economic account. There are grounds for believing that the revolution of 1944, which brought to power the rough, Latin-American equivalent of a socialist government, may have marked the beginning of a new epoch in the development of Guatemala, although reservations respecting certain innovations. Guatemala possesses the essential prerequisites for a diversified and abundant agriculture in rich soils, a wide variety of climates resulting from the range of altitudes and easily accessible foreign markets. The larger, long-run problem of integrating the population into a single economy calls for a carefully coordinated program, to be undertaken simultaneously with the short-run program, to improve education, health and nutrition as well as methods of production, to find new occupations for the Indian population of the highlands and to prepare its partial resettlement on better lands.

Focuses on the relationship of the studies of natural resources and the appraisal of agricultural development projects. Examination of several natural resource projects; Benefits and costs of agricultural development projects; Issues surrounding economic development.

The article focuses on the importance of wildlife conservation in Uganda for boosting economic development. It informs that popular African attitude toward the wildlife resources is changing and educated Africans are realizing the value of wildlife as a tourist attraction. It is stated that pride regarding national parks is also developing. It is maintained that a general understanding among Ugandans of some basic principles of the science of ecology is necessary. It is advised that a biological survey has to be made of each major region of the country in order to determine the most promising reserve areas. It is mentioned that Uganda attracts tourists because of its climate, scenery, and wildlife. The tourism industry benefits Uganda by providing support for local businesses.

This article presents information related to some aspects of river utilization in arid areas. Hydroeconomics is the economics of water supply and concerns itself with the economic patterns surrounding competition for the most basic natural resource. Unlike the economics of other mineral resources, such as petroleum and coal, iron and other ores, water has but recently become the object of concerted attention by economists and other social scientists. The world, with its growing population and its general surge toward economic development, is rapidly attaining its water frontier-the point at which only marginal resources of water remain available and unappropriated. With water and scientific agriculture, marginal lands can be coaxed to yield economically advantageous food supplies. Improvements in hydro-technical methods may rationalize water utilization to make the most of available water; but no economic process has yet been found to extend the water frontier, although optimistic reports indicate that research now under way may lead to the economical development of "artificial water" processes.

The article discusses the deplorable status of Alaska as well as provides suggestions on how to develop new ways to prepare for a better future to the country. According to the article, the nation has been totally wrecked with beaches being spilled with oil, earthmoving equipments rumbling the North Slope and a completely jaded city. Several writers have featured the region as a new place, having a new era of burgeoning population, booming industry as well as expanding transportation nets. The author relates that the country could regulate industrialization, develop a population policy as well as restrict the establishment of dams and roads if it wishes to preserve its natural resources and few places where natural science is still within reach.