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The article focuses on the changing pattern of the newspaper publishing industry. The newspaper supplies the average American with entertainment and information, and helps him to buy intelligently. The cost of newspaper publishing has risen steadily and still higher costs appear in prospect. Competing media has siphoned off advertising revenues. The number of daily newspapers has declined rather persistently since 1909 as a result of mergers and suspensions. With a strong, free press so important to the preservation of democracy, it appears of paramount importance to obtain a clear understanding of the economic problems of newspaper publishing and of the economic trends which have caused these profound changes in the industry. In general, the metropolitan newspaper has only two things to sell, namely, advertising and circulation. The principal operating expenditures of the newspaper fall into four groups labor, raw material, equipment and news and other services. Improved transportation has widened the competitive area of most papers, but this in turn has probably been a factor in reducing the number of papers published in the United States.

The article presents authors' comments on two research papers on cost accounting by economists James C. Bonbright, John R. Meyer and Gerald Kraft. Bonbright's paper said that costs be allocated in such a way that rates based on the costs allocated to a product should induce an efficient supply of the product and an efficient distribution of that supply. He grappled with some accounting and regulatory practices that cause a consistent bias away from such an efficiency-inducing allocation of costs and resources and recommended that attempts to allocate total costs be abandoned. Instead, he would determine the long-run marginal cost for each product to the extent that rates based on these marginal costs do not provide revenues equal to total costs, he would adjust rates, the method of adjustment varying with individual cases. As he points out, there is no single formula for the allocation of these non-marginal costs that will always satisfy the requirements of efficiency. The paper of Meyer and Kraft nicely complements the conceptual approach of Bonbright with a statistical study that is essentially an attempt to identify the marginal costs in transportation, on the basis of which the regulators can use their powers of traffic allocation, direct and indirect, to encourage the efficient use of transportation resources.

The article presents a discussion on some of the papers in the March 1915 issue of "The American Economic Review." These papers so thoroughly illustrate a point made by both speakers that it might be suspected that the authors had counseled with each other, were there not more fundamental reasons for their agreement. They are agreed that much serious effort must be put on the study of the marketing question in order to reduce the cost of living. That the marketing of agricultural products has met with the same difficulties non-agricultural products have encountered is apparent. Royal Meeker's paper attempts to correct any abuses, particularly those of transportation, that have not been made fast enough to suit him and that their ultimate solution cannot be hoped for along the lines followed. He therefore suggests the radical postage-stamp rate of transportation as the solution. In suggesting this service he does not seem to realize that he is tampering with natural conditions on the one hand, and that on the other hand he proposes to compel the farmers adjacent to the large centers of consumption to produce all that these centers need, particularly of perishable products.

A conference paper about the transportation of goods and of raw materials in Latin America is presented. The author believes that countries such as Brazil need to build railroads in order to transport materials to seaports for trade purposes. Also discussed is the role of fast traveling ships and loading and storage facilities in the transport of goods.

The article discusses the work of Hans Heymann, John H. Kaufmann and Wilfred Owen on transportation and economic development in the U.S. Heymann's paper is concerned with the necessity of air transport, and therefore refers only to the prestige allure of an international service. This is political economy through the looking glass. Instead of the classical end of greatest wealth and the classical means of, this is what one does, it should start with, this is what one does and end with greatest wealth subject to this constraint. The most obvious is a tendency to reduce the importance of international specialization. This may be wise, in the sense that the area previously specialized in some product which is due to become a drug on the international market. It may be unwise, in the sense that the country has overwhelming comparative advantages and disadvantages. The tendency to reduce international specialization may be the occasion for a growth, or an accelerated growth, in real income-due to the application of a dynamic policy in an area which is customarily viewed by economists as a problem in comparative statics, or it may impede or even reverse economic growth.

This article presents information on several papers and memorandums related to economic conditions in various countries. The Parliamentary documents for 1886 will contain a good deal of evidence of the increasing uneasiness as to the condition and prospects of the foreign trade of England. A Blue Book has been issued, giving the rates of duty levied on imports by the different European countries and the United States; and a second is to give the duties levied by the British colonies, these returns being on the plan of the similar documents published in 1882. The Commission on the Depression of Trade have also collected and published reports from the English consuls, showing the impediments to British trade in the different countries. Another snippet reports that the opening of fertile wheat lands in the United States, and the cheap transportation of grain to Europe have had an influence not only on England and Ireland, but on France, Germany, and Russia. French and German legislation has been invoked to protect the farmer. But now an interesting movement is in progress among the Russian peasants, by which the former serfs are becoming separated from the land. At the time of the emancipation of the serfs, Russia controlled the wheat markets of Western Europe; while the prices of agricultural products were high, and even rising.

This article comments on study about the regulation of telecommunications and railroads in the U.S. The author stated the concern of his article is about the tendency to import the though processes and the methodology of macroeconomics. The author is also concerned with the price for the product being sold by the firm and the price structures that remain the same when average level is changed. The author also presented the distinctive feature of the regulated industries: (1) the tendency toward complicated price structures (2) toward differential changes in the price structures.

This paper presents the motivation for the construction of a digital computer simulation of the American military's strategic airlift system, the author's analysis of that system preparatory to the simulation design, and the currently anticipated application of the model to studies of strategic mobility. Emphasis is placed on the estimation of the airlift productivity function for its subsequent utilization in appropriate strategic mobility models employed by the Joint Chiefs of Staff and by the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (Systems Analysis). Those variables suspected of being primary contributors to gains in marginal airlift productivity are delineated in a description of the modules constituting the model. Finally, a sketch of an hypothetical experimental design, permitting the systems analyst to specify sequentially model iterations so as to obtain valid statistical estimates of desired marginal productivities, serves as a conclusion to the paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper has discussed public transportation demand in the major metropolitan areas of the United States. We have seen that area characteristics such as population, residential and workplace density, and housing conditions are correlated with mass transit use. Surprisingly, on a cross section basis, personal income level and racial content of a city are not at all correlated with public transit use. In fact, non-white population does not seem to be correlated with any of the variables that current issues would lead us to suspect. This result, however, is not to be interpreted as disproving those studies that indicate significant relationships between income level or racial content and transit use in a given metropolitan area. It is an indication, how- ever, that transit demand studies with different formats (i.e., cross section or specific area) will produce differing conclusions. The most striking relationship of the study emerges between automobile ownership and mass transit use. We originally started with eleven independent variables and defined the relationship between each of these and mass transit riders as well as their relationship to each other. In the end it was shown that one of these eleven- automobile ownership-can be used to estimate current public transportation demand in large metropolitan areas with the equation: T = 12.55 + 1.38 X8. An application of this estimating equation to cities not included in the original computations produces a remarkably accurate result. In fact, this simple equation is capable of explaining nearly 90 per cent of the public transit demand variation between the twenty-three metropolitan areas studied. Finally, Table V clearly indicates that bus transit is by far the major means of public transportation in all cities but New York and Boston, and that the private automobile is the primary commuting vehicle in all metropolitan areas except New York. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper seeks to identify steps which should be taken to improve federal regulation of transportation through an evaluation of reports, studies, and protests in this field in the U.S., namely, the Sinclair Weeks and Frederick A. Mueller reports, the Louis J. Hector and Anthony Arpaia protests, the John P. Doyle study and the James M. Landis report. The Weeks report' was prepared in 1955, in response to a request from U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, by a cabinet committee chairmanned by Secretary of Commerce Sinclair Weeks. Five years later President Eisenhower asked a different Secretary of Commerce, Frederick A. Mueller, to undertake another comprehensive study of national transportation. Hector accompanied his resignation from the Civil Aeronautics Board in the latter part of 1959 with a vigorous protest to the President that he was convinced that an independent regulatory commission is not competent to regulate a vital national industry in the public interest. Several months later, Arpaia, just prior to resigning as a member of the Interstate Commerce Commission, delivered two attacks on the Interstate Commerce Commission.

Following the restrictive phase of transportation regulation induced by the depression, with its limitations on entry and on competitive pricing, the interest in transport regulation has now swung somewhat in the other direction. It is the purpose of this paper to indicate how some of the same problems have been handled in other countries. For the problem raised by new technologies in transport, upsetting the old railway monopoly, is almost universal. While technological progress in the U.S. has been outstanding, U.S. institutions have maintained an ambivalent attitude. Some continental countries have shown flexibility in adapting their attitudes and institutions to the changed situation. European practice may contain useful lessons for people in the U.S. The standard solution to the problem of growing competition which new technologies present to traditional transport, adopted in the United States and many other countries, has been to impose restrictive handicaps on the new technologies. In the United States, the certificate of public convenience and necessity has been used to restrict the entry of new management into transportation.

In this paper, the author attempts to make a modest contribution to a subject which has suffered neglect by the transportation economists. I think that the subject is important and I regret the neglect. I am not certain that I can advance any facts or theories that are not already known to you, but I think that results will justify the effort if, by re exploring perhaps familiar ground in what I hope is an interesting and challenging way, I can arouse your interest sufficiently to give the matter further consideration. In any event, I take some comfort in a great statement by researcher D. Johnson, "People need not so much to be informed as to be reminded." In what follows I make three assumptions, which I bring to your attention early in my discussion in order to avoid possible confusion or misunderstanding. My first assumption is that our transportation system will continue to be a mixed one, that is, one owned and operated partly by government and partly by private enterprise. My second assumption is that the private sector will continue to be regulated by government substantially along present lines, because of the persistence of monopoly and other market imperfections. Third, I assume that travelers and shippers will continue to have legal freedom in their choice of means of transportation, even though government powerfully influences bases of such choice by provision of facilities and by regulation of rates and services. The pertinence and importance of these assumptions will become evident as my discussion proceeds.

The influence of major wars on the subsequent development of the U.S. transportation is an important and a complex subject. It lies in that borderline area between politics and economics. The author is chiefly concerned with the lasting effects of wars and but little with the transportation problems encountered during their course. This lasting influence has usually been manifested in two ways, namely, by the generation of new concepts of public policy and by abnormal changes in the capacity and nature of the physical plant. As in other nations, past and present, the U.S. transportation thought, policy and development have moved somewhat haltingly in step with the prevailing ideas of the role of the nation in international affairs and of the nature, theater and scope of possible military operations. This is particularly true with respect to shipping. Within the scope of this paper we can distinguish three different periods. The first is the post Civil War period. That war had been a domestic affair and its recurrence was not deemed likely. Problems of massive mobilization and of heavy, long distance logistics were few. Accordingly, that war left very few imprints on public policy or on facilities.

Herbert Ashton's thoughtful paper on the time element in transportation offers a fundamental approach to the study of the time interval and cost incident to the movement of goods and persons. Studies of cost and quality of service generally have been related to the problems of regulation rather than to the evaluation and measurement of the economic impact of a more efficient performance of transportation service. In his discussion he poses three principal questions, if time, that is, speed, has economic significance in transportation service apart from other factors such as availability, cost, and dependability which can be separated out and measured independently, the economic significance of the time factor, and the economic importance of time. After assuming that the economic significance of time in transportation is implicit, he proceeds to recite the economic advantages of increased speed in terms of increased value of perishable and style goods, the extension of markets, faster turnover of stocks, reduced capital in goods in transit, and more stability of the distributive process.

This paper is a summary account of a detailed systems study carried out for the top management of the Matson Navigation Company as a part of their long-range planning program The basic question to which the study addresses itself is whether or not the company should develop and operate a cargo-container shipping service as an integral part of its West Coast-Hawaiian shipping operations [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article comments on some of the conclusions drawn by Riley E. Baker in respect to significant causative factors in the economic development of the Great Plains area. The economy of, and the techniques employed within, an area are a part of the aggregate economy, not isolated from it. This situation derives largely from the composite of technological developments associated with improved transportation and increased tendencies toward both individual producer and area specialization. The network of interrelationships is not an easy one to explain. Nevertheless, this difficulty does not warrant simplification merely for ease of explanation. Some passages in Baker's paper explicitly, and others by implication, indicate that he leans toward undue simplification, intentional or otherwise. There has appeared a tendency in recent years to interpret the implications of a vastly expanding technological front in terms of the impacts of a few selected techniques lifted from their functional relationships within the integrated whole. This tendency is probably the inevitable result of preliminary observations of the influences of wide technological advances upon the entire structure of an economy.

Throughout history the city and the countryside have been interdependent, but in the present century the degree of this interdependence has greatly increased in the United States. This transformation is traced in terms of changes in the following: (1) transportation and communication; (2) trade, institutional, and social relationships; (3) occupational structure; and (4) population. Implications of this change for practical affairs in specific settings such as the rural-urban fringe, for the concepts "community" and "rural-urban," and for the future of rural and urban sociology are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A facet of the current wave of conglomerate mergers which has received relatively little attention is the increasing number of railroads which have organized holding companies for the purpose of diversifying into non-transportation lines of business. The railroad exchanges its shares for those of a holding company and thereby becomes part of a conglomerate enterprise. The extension of conglomerate enterprises into the field of regulated industry has important legal and economic implications over and above the antitrust aspect, which is the source of concern with respect to conglomerate mergers outside the public utility field. It is the purpose of this paper to consider these implications as they relate to the railway industry. A number of railroads have long derived a significant part of their income from non-transportation activities. Several western railroads are involved in oil, mining and timber operations which are an outgrowth of the land grants which they received to help finance construction, while Penn Central receives substantial income from real estate originally acquired by the former New York Central in connection with the Grand Central terminal development.

The paper examines the feasibility of using discriminant analysis for estimating allocation of freight traffic among different modes of transportation. The discriminant analysis, although originally developed for problems of other sciences, is finding increasing applications in economics. In transport economics, the discriminant analysis technique has been used for predicting the choice of travel mode for the journey to work, and it appears to be equally useful in analyzing freight traffic. The data collected in the 1963 U.S. Census of Transportation provided an opportunity to apply the linear discriminant function to a sample of shipments. The problems of statistical analysis for which the discriminant functions have been used involve differentiating between members of two or more populations by means of a set of measurements. The data requirement will probably be the major limiting factor in the use of discriminant functions for estimation. Although the discriminant functions for various commodities could be calculated for the data collected by the Census of Transportation, the estimation would require detailed information, on individual shipments.

The points raised by researcher Robert Nelson in his paper about railroad mergers and public policy are examined. Nelson has painted a dismal picture both of railroad operations and of public policy. Rail commutation has for some time been a drain on the railroads, and here the best course of action, as Nelson suggests, would be to coordinate it with buses, subways and other forms of metropolitan transit under public auspices. As to intercity passenger service, some high density segments can make money. The redundancy of the railroad plant has been apparent for years. A policy is called for of selective abandonment of branches and discontinuance of service where studies clearly show unprofitabiiltiy.

This analysis is concerned with changes in industrial location as between regions and localities in the United States and not, as a central emphasis, as between sites within metropolitian areas. While passenger transportation doubtlessly undergoes a significant interaction with industrial location, the central attention of this paper is on inter-city freight transportation.A change in industrial location does not ordinarily mean an actual migration of an industry, that is, an expansion in one area concomitant with contraction in another. More usually, during a period of over-all expansion, it means a differentially greater expansion in certain regions and, during a period of contraction, a differentially lesser contraction in these same regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protective regulation assumes that the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) engages in so-called "umbrella" rate making; it sometimes arbitrarily raises the rates of one mode of transportation to aid another mode. According to a assumption motor carrier's rates are increased to protect a railroad. This assumption is untrue. Such rate making stands condemned in court and ICC decisions. The converse situation also is untrue: Complaints of carriers of one type that reductions proposed by carriers of another type are unlawful because they would cause the complaining carriers to lose traffic have been dismissed on many occasions as having no standing under the Act. Often an ideal solution, expressible in a single formula, is sought. Such a formula may emphasize direct costs. These costs necessarily are a much greater proportion of total motor than of total rail costs. Fixed costs, be they great or small, are as real, however, as any other to those who must strive to meet them and to justify further capital outlays.

In this article, hypotheses based on land-use patterns within cities are tested. Grocery store locations in the city of Lansing, Michigan, for the time periods 1900, 1910, 1920, 1930, 1940, 1950 and 1960 were used to indicate commercial land-use patterns. As a check on some of this work, a quadrant method, based on the Poisson distribution was used. The advent of new and faster means of transportation, better roads and the ability of nearly all of gainfully employed people to own an automobile have caused a transportation revolution.

The article discusses the use of packaging aids in marketing. According to the author, the focus of previous articles has been primarily on the products themselves, not the package design as an aid in marketing of the product. The majority of packaging is cellophane, a moistureproof, transparent wrapping film. In analyzing the packaging of fresh produce, the author looks at case studies of packaging done by the retailer and by the source. A study performed by the American Stores Company and the United States Department of Agriculture found that prepackaging and refrigeration lowered losses due to spoilage, but would not revolutionize the produce industry. The packaging did increase sales due to the attractiveness of the products and, the author believes, will be used more in the future.

The article discusses the study of the nature of the movement of people within a market area, which the author calls the "traffic study." According to him, this field of study is important to marketing because it affects store locations, economic trends in particular areas, and potential competition from other stores within the market area. Certain methods are common to traffic studies, the observation method, which includes all forms of observing the number of people that may travel into a given area; the questionnaire study, which questions potential consumers on method and route of travel; and the analysis of existing statistics. The author feels that these studies fall within the field of marketing and should be utilized in marketing decisions.

The brotherhoods of operating railroad workers have been distinguished during their long careers by their strict adherence to craft unionism and their nonaffiliation with trade union federations, such as the AFL and CIO. In the 1880's, however, when other groups of workers were experimenting with craft federations and industrial unions, railroad workers were similarly engaged in assaying the merits of these forms of organization. This article discusses the efforts to establish a federation of the brotherhoods and, later, an industrial union of railroad workers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author reports on the place the family car has played in the lives of people in the United States. The way cars have impacted the building of roads and freeways in the U.S. is mentioned. The way the structure of the American family has impacted how automobiles have been viewed by people is discussed. The author's opinions regarding the way in which automobiles have been able to fulfill the needs of the family but have been unable to meet the needs of society are discussed. The problem which has arisen regarding the selling of mass transportation to car owners is mentioned.

Obviously, the question arises as to whether the National Transportation Policy the National Transportation Policy statement of Congress requires the phrase "to recognize and preserve the inherent advantages of each [mode of transportation]." Under a competitive environment, efficient carrier management, efficient carrier management will recognize and preserve the inherent advantages the carrier possesses or be replaced by a management that can. The market place will determine whether the inherent advantages are sufficient to allow the carrier to survive. The uneconomic status of our current transportation system indicates that the inherent advantages of carriers have not been recognized and preserved. The National Transportation Policy should be more concerned with establishing competitive conditions and preventing aberration from those conditions. Shippers seeking the most economical transportation from a price-quality point of view in combination with carriers seeking by exploiting their inherent advantages will be sufficient to "recognize and preserve." [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers information on the resolutions adopted by the governing council of the American Public Health Association (APHA), an organization of public health professionals in the U.S., from October 11-15, 1971. Those resolutions include the enforcement of consumer protection regulations, establishment of neighborhood health centers, coordination of federal government's health-related programs, and the development of rapid mass transportation systems. Also included in the resolutions adopted by APHA are the elimination of advertising that stimulates unnecessary drug use, the development of solid waste disposal systems, and the creation of a comprehensive national energy policy.

As soon as steps pointing to an early peace have been taken-indeed in the course even of the tentative steps now being taken-there will be trade disturbance and commercial speculation, reflecting the changed conditions of demand, of transportation and of price, which peace is expected to bring. There will be speculative advances in many commodities, speculative reactions, unsettled and feverish conditions. If international as well as domestic competition for the important commodities is left to take its own course, most undesirable trade conditions are likely to come. This applies more particularly to such commodities as cotton, wool, copper, tin, rubber, sugar, coffee. There should be a Central Board of Control and Allotment. At the head of that board should be a person of distinction, and, at the same time, one in whose impartial spirit there is general confidence. There should be on the board representation of allies, neutrals, and the present belligerents. It is not necessary at the present stage to establish definitely such an organization as is here tentatively outlined. But it is highly desirable that the U.S. should now state its adhesion to the main principles involved namely, international allotments in place of unbridled competition, and inclusion of the present enemy countries in the plan.

The development of American cities has been accompanied by a corresponding growth in their importance in the national economy. Cities are not only the major locations of industry and the seats of governments. In cities are located the institutions that organize and direct the commerce, transportation, communication, and financial work of the nation. In this article the author discusses the economic problems of the American cities. The dominant place of city economy in the economy of the nation is illustrated by comments of the National Resources Committee to the effect that the 155 counties of the country which contained the larger industrial cities paid out 79 per cent of all the wages of the nation and 83 per cent of all the salaries. The growth of urbanism has long presented problems, but so rapid has been city development that to a considerable extent defects were obliterated by expansion. Whatever the curative effects of rapid growth or the merits of the view that it was curative, there is no longer reliance on this simple remedy.

Contrary to ideas rather widely entertained by those who have not studied the history of the Interstate Commerce Commission, the transportation abuses which it was created to abate were the product more of competition than of monopoly, although both were contributing factors. Between them, with competition as the main moving force, they had produced all manner of discriminations in rates, which were found on every hand and were thought by many to be unjust. The competition between different modes of transportation is, of course, affected very materially by the extent to which public aid or subsidy is given, directly or indirectly, to each. The chief questions by which the Commission is confronted in the adjustment of the rates of competing forms of transportation are whether and how and to what extent it should exercise its authority to prescribe minimum reasonable rates. The Commission is concentrating attention on the subject of cost finding, and has recruited a small staff of experts for this purpose.

The article presents the author's opinion on the condition of railroads transports in the U.S. The present situation, in contrast, finds the steam railroads the basic and still the essentially superior national agency of transportation, facing, however, a group of new competitors, which under present Inequality in competitive conditions, may deprive them of their rightful place. There is even greater contrast between the present competitive situation and that which prevailed during the long period of complete railroad dominance. It was then a case of competition between units of like kinds a competition that was limited or incomplete with much security in the monopoly at noncompetitive points. Furthermore, the competitors were all common carriers using a highway that was constructed and maintained at their own cost. Today the railroads face a very complete competition from a variety of competitors many of whom are unregulated contract carriers, which use public maintained highways and waterways.

The article focuses on the competition of motor and rail carriers in Great Britain. American railways have lost much of certain kinds of traffic to motor competitors. These traffics are more important to British railways; and this fact, coupled with other favoring circumstances, might well lead one to expect a disastrous competition over there. Such is not the case, and the reasons lie in the exceptional degree to which British railways have entrenched themselves in serving the traffic in question. Yet they must fight for much of their business; and, in consequence, important aspects of railway policy are subject to critical scrutiny, and state assistance has been sought, though not quite in the American manner. In 1928, in the face of opposition said to constitute a parliamentary record, the "road powers" were won. Subsequently the railways have been engaged in exploiting the privilege then obtained; and already, in the passenger field, they have secured a substantial interest in most of the leading services in Great Britain.

This article focuses on the motor transportation in the United States. With the picture for the entire United States, it is interesting to compare the movement of traffic for typical railways in each of the lesser areas. Selected New England roads show an increase in ton-miles of about 17 per cent as compared with 20 per cent for the Eastern District; their increase in passenger-miles, with a decrease of almost 20 per cent in number of passengers hauled, was about 4 per cent on two of the roads, the Boston and Maine and the New York, New Haven and Hartford. In Granger Territory three roads show an increase in total ton-miles of about 45 per cent, an increase in ton-miles per mile of line of about 40 per cent, and a relatively slight increase in average length of haul. From a railway standpoint, the other side of the picture is darker, however. Passenger-miles decreased about 14 per cent, passengers carried and traffic density by about the same proportion, while average length of haul remained approximately the same. in Southwestern Territory a similar situation appears; ton-miles and freight traffic density increased almost by half, the average haul remaining constant, while passenger traffic results were less favorable.

Before the Pittsburgh-plus practice was adopted by the steel mills, steel was sold on a Pittsburgh zone-plus system. The steel companies proceeded to adjust themselves to that hole. They could not change the freight-rate schedules of the railways, so they fitted their delivery prices of steel to the freight rates. This is the Pittsburgh-plus practice. Within the past thirty years rolled steel has become almost as important as railways. Every skyscraper, every factory building is a rolled-steel product. Every automobile, every farm implement, every railway, every bridge is made of rolled steel. The consumers of rolled steel include almost the entire list of machinery manufacturers and building and bridge erectors. The contention of the steel company, in its defense, that each locality of delivery is a separate market for steel and that the steel producers compete with each other in those several markets is not a proper notion of a free and equal market. The rather simple remedy is merely to prohibit the delivered-price system; then the buyers of steel are smart enough to break down the discriminations in so far as they believe that those discriminations place them at a disadvantage in their competition with each other.

The article presents a list of doctoral dissertation in political economy in progress in universities and colleges of the U.S. Some of the dissertation included are "The Wage Theories of American Economists," by J. Anton de Haas; "A Theory of Socialization," by Morris Halpern; "The Theory of Business Profits," by Frank H. Knight; "Economic Theory in Russia," by Manuel Lippitt-Larkin; "The History and Economic Interpretation of the Doctrine of Quasi Public Businesses," by Charles R. Nesbitt; "Laws and Theory of Interest and Usury," by Henry Salant; "History of English Trade in the Baltic in the Eighteenth Century," by Alden Anderson; "History of Agricultural Changes in Southern New England from 1789 to 1840" by Percy Wells Bidwell; "Geographical Influences on the Development of Atlantic Seaports," by Mary J. Lanier; "Transportation As a Factor in the Development of Illinois Before 1860," by Judson F. Lee; "Economic History of Wisconsin in the Civil War," by Fred Merk; "Trade Routes in Southern France in the Middle Ages," by Norman S. Parker.

Royal Meeker's contention that the present transportation system with its community discrimination involves waste is valid, but such waste is not a primary cause of the high marketing cost. The studies that have been made indicate that the transportation cost is small when compared with the cost of retailing and jobbing. While from 5 to 7 cents of the consumer's dollar is paid for transportation, 40 to 45 cents is paid for middlemen's services. But, the author disagrees with the advisability of establishing a flat postal rate as a remedy, in the marketing of perishable commodities. In the first place, Meeker shows by the conclusion to his discussion of transportation that he hopes for a result from the flat rate which can be accomplished more economically and without any radical departure in rate making by a more extensive application of the cost of service principle. He anticipates his "Carping Critic" by stating that the depreciation in quality of merchandise, insurance and interest charges would afford sufficient obstacles in the shipment of commodities, especially perishable goods, to prevent their shipment across the continent to compete in the markets with the same products grown near at hand.

This article presents information on documents and reports of various corporations. A noteworthy act for railroad regulation was passed by the legislature of California on February 10, 1911. All rates on intrastate business in California are hence-forth to be established by the state railroad commission. Carriers may propose changes between the first and tenth days of July of each year, but may not themselves raise or lower any rate. The commission has power over demurrage, storage, carrying, delivering, switching, time of transit, and any service incidental to the transportation of passengers or freight. By an ordinance granting privileges to the Chicago Telephone Company, passed November 6, 1907, the city council reserved the right, from time to time, to regulate telephone rates by special ordinance. The city should desire to take up the regulation of rates, the comptroller is required to give the company thirty days' notice, and the latter must then present all the information needed to assist the city to make a proper and reasonable regulation of rates.

Early seafarers perceived the large, deep-water sound and numerous waterways of Port Royal, South Carolina, as advantages of the development of a port with an excellent transport network. Those who settled the land, however, perceived the large sound and waterways as obstacles which led to isolation, political fragmentation, and fears of military insecurity. The failure of colonial development at Port Royal appears related to the physical features which were praised by those who first described the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gateway cities develop between areas of differing intensities or types of production; they are located towards one end of their tributary areas; and they are heavily committed to transportation and wholesaling. It is hypothesized that if the tributary area of a gateway city is large enough and productive enough to support the rise of large central places, then the gateway will be shorn of much of its previous hinterland and will itself come to function as a central place. The pattern of growth of Winnipeg fits the sequence set out in the hypothesis. Briefer case studies of Cincinnati, St. Louis, Minneapolis-St. Paul, and Cluj also support the hypothesis. The rise of gateways is dependent upon the presence of threshold values for distance, and levels of productivity. The gateway concept may help explain the existence of twin cities, but is in opposition to the basic spatial postulate of the von Thünen model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examines the role of railroad and how changes in transport stimulated economic advance in the United States. Externalities associated with transport change; Details on how railroad triumphed over canal transport.

The article examines the influence of railroad in the economic growth in the U.S. In order that a study of the influence of railroads on American economic growth may contribute to the evaluation of the investment decisions posed by the space effort, two conditions must be met. First, the analysis of railroads must focus on the incremental contribution of this innovation. Discussions merely of things the railroad did are of no use unless it is known whether these services represent more or less than would have been contributed by alternative investments. Second, one must be able to show how the effects of the space program may conform to or deviate from the types of effects attributable to railroads both in magnitude and in quality. From an economic point of view the central or primary feature of the railroad was its impact on the cost of inland transport. Obviously if the cost of rail service had exceeded the cost of equivalent service by alternative forms of transport over all routes and for all items railroads would not have been built and all of their derived consequences would have been absent.

The article discusses the factors inhibiting the development of the Appalachian region. Appalachia, as defined by the Appalachian Regional Commission, is to some extent a political conglomeration of Appalachias. The annual rate of employment change for Appalachia between 1962 and 1965 was 2.3 percent as opposed to 3.2 percent for the U.S with the Appalachian portions of Kentucky, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Virginia and West Virginia registering slower growth rates than the U.S. The total population in the Appalachian region in 1960 exceeded 15 million, but only 47.5 percent of this population was classified as being urban. The region suffered an absolute population decline of 3.1 percent in metropolitan areas and 5.1 percent in non metropolitan areas during the 1950 to 1960 census for persons 18 to 64 years of age, the economically-productive age group. Factors such as non-standard transportation system, paucity of public investment, the antiquated governmental structure and the industrial structure inhibited the growth of West Virginia. The transportation and communication systems constitute the major integrating factors in a market system. It is largely the development of the transportation system that furnishes the more important location factors in a market-directed economy. The close relationship between the transportation and communication systems and industrial location reflects the impact of national transportation policy on regional growth.

Ninety years ago when the village of Chicago was considering incorporation as a city, it was confined to the area between the river and the shore of the lake. Early commercial interests were choosing sites along what as yet was an unnavigable stream, but which, if developed, promised to be for some time not only the chief but the sole means of transportation other than three or four miry roads which led into various parts of the hinterland. One of the first important undertakings of the city was that of straightening and dredging the mouth of the river. Although the population of the city was small none could deny that it was increasing rapidly and industry continually manifested its tendency to locate in proximity to transportation. Products of the Great Lakes region were brought into the city by boat, manufactured articles were sent away and after the completion of the canal, grain, stone, were barged up from their sources along the south branch of the river. In 1848 the first ten miles of the present Chicago and Northwestern Railroad were completed and by 1870, the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy and the Illinois Central were in partial or complete operation connecting the city and the East with the Middle West as far as the Mississippi River.

The article discusses the literature of railway rate theory in the United States. The thing which the theory of railway rates had to explain was the lack of uniformity in charges for services performed at approximately equal costs. The practice of adjusting rates to the conditions of demand manifested itself in a number of ways. It resulted in the practice of classifying freight, and of granting exceptional or special rates on commodities that required particularly low rates. The first criticism of the joint-cost theory is based on the contention that there must be two or more products or services produced together before joint costs can appear, and that a railway provides a single homogeneous commodity, namely, transport. It can easily be seen that the demand for the transport of one commodity is largely independent of the price at which the transport of other commodities is sold. A considerable degree of differentiation is necessary to utilize existing plant. The extra traffic occasions an extra capital cost, but still enables other portions of the plant to be utilized more nearly to capacity without additional expense.

Comments on the economics of railroad transportation in the U.S. from the standpoint of public policy. Demands of public policy in the formulation of regulative principles; Factors that contributed to the economist's formulation of the demands of public policy.

The article focuses on changes in women's work and wages in the U.S. during the period 1900 to 1910. There is an increase in the number of female wage earners according to the census of 1910. The field where enormous increase is noticed is in trade and transportation. The article also states that among the causes of low wages, aside from the loss caused by unemployment, the earnings of women fall below the level approved by wage commissions for various reasons. The age factor is also important in determining the low wage of women workers. Of scarcely less importance than the question of age is that of race. The effect of the family condition of working women on their wage is discussed which must be considered by minimum wage boards and commissions. There is a need of determined efforts to raise the legal age of entering employment, to limit the numbers of the newly immigrated sending youthful and highly inefficient workers with low standards of living and there should be a realization of the fact that women wage earners are ill paid because they are unskilled workers.

Focuses on transportation and banking enterprises of states in the U.S. in relation to the growth of corporations. Factors that contributed to the economic development of the enterprises; Contribution of immigrant population in the country to economic development of the industries; Importance of transportation for industrial development in the country.

Focuses on the integration of industry in the United States as of November 1901. Definition of integration of industry; Types of industries that went for integration; Benefit of integration of the iron and steel industry; Effect of integration of the transportation industry in the country.