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Utilizing the North-Hatt method, scores for 52 jobs and occupations were calculated from responses of 129 university students in West Pakistan. Where comparisons were possible, these evaluations were examined alongside those reported by U.S. respondents. Ratings of a smaller number of occupations were also compared for Philippine, Pakistan and U.S. samples. The paper proposes that such inquiry can, under certain conditions, provide a useful measure of the relative capacity of an important segment of the population of a developing country to staff and operate a technically advanced, complex, industrial-commercial economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Demography (Springer Nature) is the property of Springer Nature and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The purdah system, which limits a woman's mobility outside her home, may be an extreme example of highly segregated systems of sex role allocation, but shows many fundamental features in common with other societies. Purdah is an important institution among Muslims in Pakistan and India, but has not been well studied, partly because secluded women are inaccessible to male researchers. The purdah system is related to status, the division of labor, interpersonal dependency, social distance and the maintenance of moral standards; the two conceptual formulations used to analyze the system with reference to these factors are "separate worlds" and "symbolic shelter." In the present paper, special emphasis is placed on the influence of purdah observance and values on women's participation in modern occupations. Medicine and teaching are found to be the most important high prestige occupations for educated women because of the special needs of a female clientele in a sex-segregated system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This Paper attempts to estimate median age at marriage for Pakistan and its regions from census data. Urban-rural differentials and trend, in age at marriage have also been discussed. An effort has been made to analyze the errors in Pakistan's enumeration data, adjust the reported proportions single, and re-estimate age at marriage in that country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mate selection in a Muslim society is based on marriages arranged by the families of the principals, and in this paper the function of dower, or the sum of money the bridegroom agrees to pay the bride, is examined. A sample of 1,333 marriage registrations was taken in Karachi, Pakistan, from three distinct socioeconomic areas—upper, middle, and lower class—to determine what differentials, if any, exist among them in the role that dower plays. Although there exists an arrangement for the payment of a minimum amount of dower, it was found that the upper class made the largest commitment, the lower class the smallest, with the middle class falling between the two. Dower largely functions as a form of insurance to provide a degree of economic security for the wife should the couple separate or either party seek a divorce. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

MONETARY policies that have been pursued in Pakistan have been concerned almost exclusively with maintaining price stability by controlling the rate of expansion of bank credit to the public and private sectors. Little attention has been given to policies that would influence the composition of investment portfolios or encourage private saving and the development of financial intermediation and an efficient capital market. In this paper, I review me monetary policies, in a broad sense, that have been pursued in Pakistan over the past decade-and-a-half and discuss the "success'' and appropriateness of these policies with respect to the objectives of price stability and growth. In the first part of the paper, I present a broad outline of the banking system and discuss the extent to which the central bank has been able and willing to control the volume of bank credit and the level of interest rates. In the second section, I examine the historical experience of monetary expansion and price inflation and relate these to the expansion of lending by commercial banks to the private sector, the monetary effects of government borrowing from the banking system, and external transactions. In the final section, I discuss the effects of policies regarding price stability and the rate of monetary expansion on the goals of increasing exports and domestic savings as a proportion of GNP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The process of industrialization in a developing economy is usually accompanied by significant changes in the structure of employment. Most characteristic is the shift of employment from agriculture, where both average and marginal labor productivities are low and consequently income per worker is low, to more productive nonagricultural sectors, where income per worker is higher, in this paper, an attempt is made to evaluate growth of the Pakistani economy over the intercensal period 1951-61 by first comparing an industry's relative share in the labor force with its relative share in total income or product and the changes in the two, and then quantifying the sources of growth of income during this period in terms of the product performance of different industries as well as of the whole economy. Parallel analyses are conducted for the two provinces of the country, namely, East Pakistan and West Pakistan. It is important to note that, although the Central Statistical Office has carried out several national labor force surveys since July 1963, the decennial population censuses of Pakistan remain the only reliable sources of comprehensive statistical data on labor force. Comparisons of the industrial distributions of labor force in different survey years (table B2) with those for the census years 1951 and 1961 (table 1) reveal that the reporting of the industry of a worker by these surveys is erratic and inconsistent. Marked fluctuations in the proportionate shares of different industrial sectors in labor force are reported. These cannot be explained entirely by seasonality of agriculture or changes in the structure of the economy. For example, the 1965 survey for East Pakistan shows three-fourths of the labor force in agriculture, about eleven percentage points less than was reported in 1961. This percentage again increases to about 80 in 1967-68. Also note the relative shares of the subservice sectors of commerce and government, personal, and other services,... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is the purpose of this paper to show, in the context of Pakistan and its market for government securities, that fairly broad government security markets are attainable. The observed narrowness of the market in Pakistan largely results not from the nation's underdevelopment, but from government policy. It will be shown that different policies toward Pakistani government securities could lead to a much broader security market. To a great extent, in Pakistan, at least, the conduct of traditional open-market operations would be quite possible if the government were only to abstain from those policies which presently make such operations impossible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objectives of this paper have been developed on the assumption that the functional effectiveness of a state varies spatially within its own territorial limits. The case of West Pakistan has been considered. An attempt has been made to distinguish the areas of varying degree of functional effectiveness in West Pakistan and thus to provide a framework for a more realistic understanding of the functional relationship of a state with the various parts of its territory. The concept implies that the area is culturally homogeneous, and is used here to measure the administrative- economic quality of a given area. The basic criteria employed are a) the density of population and b) density of transportation lines. The ecumene (the effective state area) has been delimited as that part of the total area which provides economic support to most of its inhabitants. The remaining portion of the state has been termed extra-ecumerical." The ecumene has been classified into minimally effective area, intensively effective area, is more, and the core area. The intensively effective area is more densely populated ( 100 persons to the square mile) and has a closer mesh of transportation lines (each part lies within five miles of a motorable road or railroad station. Additional measures of agricultural productivity, intensity of market potential, magnitude of manufacturing, and the degree of urbanization have been used to locate the core area which is depicted as the Lahore-Lyallpur axis Karachi, because of its nonagricultural base, falls short of the measures of a core area and has been termed the "sub-core." Thus it has been found that there are observable disparities of functional effectiveness in West Pakistan.

The article reports that due to non-availability of reliable and usable vital statistics, no attempt was made in the past to construct a life table for Pakistan. It is encouraging to note that currently Pakistan and many other developing countries, which do not have efficient vital registration systems, have begun to use the sampling techniques for obtaining vital statistics. The data produced by the Population Growth Estimation (PGE) experiment, which is based on a national probability sample of twenty- four areas (each containing a population of approximately five thousand), have for the first time enabled the construction of a set of life tables for Pakistan and its two provinces. Two types of survey activities were undertaken in the sampled areas. One was the Longitudinal Registration (LR), wherein full-time registrars who were living in the sampled areas as they occurred registered births and deaths. Two series of life tables, A and B, have been presented in the paper.

This paper presents statistical evidence, which seems to be conclusive, that there exists a particular pattern of mortality in Ceylon, India and Pakistan where, contrary to general experience, female mortality is higher than that of the males. The sex ratios of the enumerated population in these three countries are among the highest in the world, and the age pattern of the sex ratios is such that they increase from childhood to adulthood to the old ages. Abnormally high sex ratios and selective migration cannot account for this particular pattern, but there is evidence of a higher degree of under-enumeration of females than males. The main responsible factor, however, seems to be higher female mortality, in the ages of maternity as well as in childhood. This shows the need for a regional or local approach to some demographic problems. In this case, for instance, model life tables based on average international experience are not representative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article seeks to determine the social characteristics of adopters and non-adopters of agricultural innovation in two Punjabi villages in west Pakistan. Male cultivators were interviewed from the two villages. An adoption score was derived from the sum of the years-of-use method to come up with four categories of adopters. It was found that adoption was significantly related to age, education, size of holding, and village homogeneity.

This paper examines the agricultural tenure system of East Pakistan and how it has contributed to or impeded the growth of productivity in that province. Improvements in the system may raise productivity if the tenure system is the only impediment withholding growth of output in agriculture. At the same time it has to be realized that the tenure system is merely a part of the multifarious forces impeding or promoting growth in output. The economy of East Pakistan is based primarily on agriculture. Ninety per cent of the people live in rural areas and earn their living directly or indirectly from agriculture. The population is increasing at the rate of 3% per annum and the population density of 1000 people per square mile is one of the highest in the world. The per capita land allocation is half an acre. The level of education is very low with 78.5 per cent of the people illiterate. Jute and tea grown in East Pakistan account for the bulk of Pakistan's export earnings. The fundamental problem, therefore, is one of finding ways and means by which the peasants receive the incentive to produce surplus of food and fibers over and above their own consumption.

The concept of "disguised" unemployment plays an important role in development theorizing, yet its empirical content is uncertain. This paper studies the problem in rural East Pakistan, a densely-populated rice-producing area of South Asia. It is shown, using data on output and workers per acre and cropped acreage, that between 1951 and 1961 the degree of "disguised" unemployment increased sharply, amounting to some 20 percent of the 1961 labor force. This is attributed to the rapid population growth, which had begun two decades earlier, plus the fixed supply of other [actors. The labor surplus that developed seems to have been largely "disguised" through work-sharing, that is, a reduction in average hours worked per worker. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The prospect of creating policies specifically to increase utilisation rates holds great promise for increasing the level and the rate of growth of income in underdeveloped countries. Having left the utilisation decision entirely to private preferences in the past, any planning that begins explicitly to recognise utilisation as an alternative to saving will quite probably find that there has been too much indulgence of work preferences and too little indulgence of preferences for consumption or growth. The objectives of this paper are two: to investigate the importance of excess industrial capacity and the reasons for its existence in underdeveloped countries through an examination of industry in West Pakistan; and to propose that capacity utilisation can be manipulated by economic planning and suggest that, as a policy variable, it may have an influence on the rate of growth comparable to that of saving. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Analyzes legal developments in the area of industrial due process in Pakistan through a study of the country's case law. Factors that make it imperative to institutionalize the process of employee discharge and discipline; Classification of the provisions of the Industrial Employment (Standing Orders) Act of 1946 and its corresponding rules; Categories of the causes for which an employer may dismiss an employee.

A critical evaluation of the available data on migration between India and Pakistan in the 1951-61 decade leads to the conclusion that there was a substantial net migration of Pakistan-born persons into India, but only a negligible net migration of India-born persons into Pakistan. Annual administrative statistics published by the Indian Government suggest an immigration from Pakistan of the order of 1.16 to 1.32 million. More importantly, birthplace data from the Indian censuses indicate a net intercensal immigration of Pakistan-born persons amounting to 1.19 to 1.34 million, depending on the assumed level of mortality. The Pakistani census data on the India-born show no net influx from India during 1951-61. Intercensal growth rates for the populations of different religious faiths in Pakistan are consistent with the estimates of net immigration into India. The migrants and the survivors of their progeny are estimated to represent a net gain of about 1.68 million by India and to account for no more than 2.2 per cent of the total population growth in India during 1951-61. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the methodology of the Pakistan approach to family planning evaluation, the validity of the method and its usefulness in program evaluation within Pakistan, as well as elsewhere. Pakistan, like most other developing nations that embark on a large-scale family planning program, lacks the machinery to measure fertility changes accurately. The civil registration system produces totally inadequate data, and vital statistics collected on a sample basis may not reflect small or short-run changes in fertility. In brief, the Pakistan approach to program evaluation is to translate reported program activity into couple years of protection (CYP) and then to translate couple years protection into births prevented. The concept of CYP in the Pakistan family planning program is disarmingly simple. It attempts to measure the joint impact of all program methods in terms of the length of time a woman is protected against the risk of conception through her or her husband's adoption of family planning.

The purpose of the present study is to examine various measures of the level and structure of protection, both in principle and empirically, in the case of Pakistan. First, we have made use of a substantial body of material on direct price comparisons for goods in Pakistan and in international trade in order to calculate a basic set of effective rates of protection or subsidy. This study has concentrated exclusively on manufacturing industries, since such industries have the most detailed coverage in existing input-output studies of Pakistan. A brief word should be said about agriculture before summarizing the results relating to manufacturing. Most observers had concurred for some time that Pakistan's agriculture was severely discriminated against by government policies of all sorts. One study that formed the basis for the present paper (Lewis, 1968) suggested some orders of magnitude for this price discrimination. The agricultural sector in 1963/64 paid approximately Rs. 8.08 when it purchased one dollar's worth of manufactured goods, while it received about Rs. 5.15 for its sales of one dollar's worth of agricultural products. This price differential is equivalent to paying 57 per cent more, or receiving 36 per cent less, when trading domestically, than agriculture could have paid or received if it could have traded in a free international market. The losses were much greater a decade earlier. With any reasonable set of input weights, the agricultural sector had been suffering "negative" protection--or discrimination against its output. This fact is the principal counterpoint to the exceedingly high levels of nominal and effective protection found in most manufacturing industries, even after an adjustment has been made for the overvaluation of the rupee. One finally arrives at a more precise method of stating what had been suspected all along, and what had been shown with some empirical precision in the calculations of implicit exchange rates for commod... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author reflects on the technological developments that is happening in Pakistan. He notes that 1857 marks the modern era of Pakistan, particularly in the western part for it had built low dams governed by hydraulic engineers. However, he argues that carrying these lofty plans into the future shows vagueness for the British administration had failed to place any emphasis on technical education, on mechanical skills or on agricultural husbandry.

Presents a list of periodicals on economy. "Imports of Pakistan: Growth and Structure," by N. Islam; "A Report on the Seminar on the Population Problems in the Economic Development of Pakistan."

Universal literacy and compulsory primary education are desirable goals in most developing countries and are elements of their developmental strategies. Investments in new industry, agriculture, and the infrastructure of developing countries often receive more attention than expenditures in the social sectors, which need funds for health, education, housing, and welfare programs. In Pakistan, for instance, the main emphasis during the first three 5-year plans has been on investment in physical goods, and in time of budgetary crises the social sector is among the first items to be curtailed. Leaving aside the complex question of the role of investment in human capital for national economic development, there is still a need to realize the scarcity of funds which confronts the enormous tasks in the field of education and literacy. The 196I population census of Pakistan reports over 80 percent of the population (age 5 and older) to be illiterate; a plan to overcome illiteracy on a massive scale mentions that 68 million people will have to be included in its program. Economists have shown little interest in human-resource development in spite of clear economic dimensions: claims are made on very scarce resources. They may even have hindered adult literacy campaigns, arguing that benefit-cost ratios of adult programs compare unfavorably with programs investing in children; the lack of impetus of literacy campaigns in West Pakistan can certainly be related to a development bias toward the areas mentioned before. In this article, I report on empirical research done to explore the question of whether formal education is the only practical way to achieve universal literacy. In our use of concepts related to literacy we will strictly adhere to the definitions as are given in publications by the governmental institutions in Pakistan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Pakistan Academies for Village Development are experimental new educational and training agencies of the Government of Pakistan designed and created to aid in rural development and planned change. The need for a new type of educational and training agency as a part of the V-AID (Village Agricultural and Industrial Development) undertaking in Pakistan became apparent in 1955. By that time a number of V-AID Training Institutes had begun to turn out village level workers. The Pakistan Government officers who were to administer these village development operations were sent to the United States for special training, because there existed no Pakistani institution for the purpose. In part to meet this need, but also to train the "supervisory and administrative personnel in the civil and other nation-building departments," the Pakistan Academies for Village Development were planned and established. The purpose of the present study is to report on this case of cross-cultural cooperation in contributing to the modernizing of rural Pakistan.

One of the greatest population transfers in history took place at the time of the granting of independence to India and Pakistan. According to the India and Pakistan census reports of 1951, there were 7,150,000 Muslim refugees in Pakistan and 7,471,000 non-Muslim refugees in India by March 1, 1951. In 1941, Sind, now in Pakistan, had a population of 4,335,008, of which 1,229,926 were Hindus. The Hindus represented about one-fourth of the population, and the Muslims three-fourths. But while they constituted a minority group in this region, the Hindus formerly held the high-status positions of merchants, shopkeepers, money-lenders, land-owners, teachers, and administrators. The Muslims, on the other hand, were mostly peasants. While rioting was going on in other regions at the time of Partition, Sind remained surprisingly peaceful until the closing weeks of 1947. Then the terror broke loose. In the last two months of 1947 and especially in January 1948 a great exodus of Hindus took place. About a million and a quarter left Sind. Of these, about half a million went south to Bombay State and settled in or near the cities, including Pimpri Colony, where, as traders and shopkeepers, the Sindhis tried to pursue their traditional lines of work.

The extent to which farmers in underdeveloped areas respond to price changes is a widely debated subject. To date, however, most discussions have been speculative in nature, and have been based on a priori consideration of peasant behavior and institutional limitations. The discussion presented in this article is in the context of West Pakistan, though many of the findings appear to be applicable to a much wider area. The major thesis set forth is that farmers in West Pakistan, when given the opportunity, do respond to price and income incentives. for Pakistan. Evidences suggest that it is possible to shift the composition of agricultural output by changing the relative prices within agriculture. They also emphasizes that unless there is a thoroughgoing reform in the services and facilities made available to farmers, higher prices alone can have little effect on increasing yields per acre. On the other hand, other evidence suggests that farmers of the area will respond to economic incentives if given the opportunity to do so. Hence, West Pakistan's agricultural difficulties appear to be less a matter of farmer motivation and more a problem of reducing uncertainty and of improving the organization of agricultural services.

First, it fails to account for the variance in outcomes of political crises. There are at least three types of outcomes: military take-over, military support for one of the contending civilian groups, or military neutrality such that the crisis is resolved through the political processes. All three of these outcomes have occurred in the new nations. This suggests that more specific hypotheses are needed to differentiate the conditions which lead to different outcomes. Second, the range of variance encompasses the outcomes of political crises in the "developed" as well as the "underdeveloped" states, although the political institutions and processes are assumed to be well-established in the former. The commonality in the variance indicates that the developed-underdeveloped dichotomy is inadequate as an explanatory principle? Military involvement in polities is as common to the old and developed states as to the new and underdeveloped states. It will be useful, therefore, to look beyond this simple dichotomy to a more generic set of differences. In analysing the role of the military in the new states, many writers focus on the relationship between military and civilian authorities (see e.g., Lieuwen, 1964). These studies emphasize the military as a socializing agent and as a base of political support for the current regime. To explain the emergence of the military from a neutral to an interventionist political force, the argument has been that the military becomes politicized under conditions of civilian political failure (Rudolph and Rudolph, 1964; Finer, 1962:63; Pye, 1962b:231-251; Shils, 1962:8-9; Depuy, 1961). The apparent assumption of this argument is that political roles and processes are not firmly institutionalized in these states. Failure to achieve stated national goals creates doubt as to the legitimacy of the existing political system. As a result, the political functions are assumed by an organization that is outside the political system and therefore not discredited by its failures, rather than by political opponents. While this argument finds illustrative support in cases such as Pakistan and Burma, it has two basic weaknesses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

People who reject the possibility of religion as prime mover in a social change, some way or the other, do reckons the influence which various forms of religious expressions have, whether these are considered structurally or in more direct relation to the attitudes and behavior of individuals in the society. It is perhaps understandable that comparatively little attention has been given to the sociological analysis of modern Muslim societies or to the specific problem of the social functions of Islam. Max Weber made some passing comments to Islam, although evidently to include an analysis of this faith also in his comparative studies in the sociology of religion. If a developing society may be taken to signify one that is in process of becoming a modern one, the question then hinges upon how modernity, as applied to a large or total social system, is defined. Several conditions would need to be met before full or systematic analysis of the functions of Islam in a developing country such as Pakistan could be made.

An analysis of the relationship between desired family size and family planning practices was conducted on a probability sample of 1600 currently married women from a rural area of East Pakistan. Results indicated that women whose desired family size is equal to or less than their actual family size have significantly greater frequencies practicing family planning than women whose desired size exceeds their actual size. This relationship generally persisted while controlling upon selected social and demographic factors. Thus, to reduce levels of reproduction through practice of family planning more attention must be given to the affects of family size norms and the factors related to these norms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, two samples were taken of graduate students at two of the major universities in West Pakistan, the University of Karachi and the University of the Punjab at Lahore, in an effort to determine how the students, as potential initiators of social change, would respond to the traditional norms of mate selection in their society. The norms call for marriages arranged by their families, frequently without the principals meeting before marriage. An analysis of the responses to a series of questions offering various options in decision making in mate selection indicates that male students took a more liberal position and are more likely to play the role of initiators of social change than are the women, while the Karachi students appear to take a somewhat more liberal stance than do their peers at the University of the Punjab. Attitudes toward the importance of an engagement were almost evenly divided between those who felt it was important and those who did not. Somewhat more Karachi males felt an engagement was important than did their female classmates, while there was no difference between the attitudes of the Lahore males and females. It appears that an important segment of the student body sup ports the traditional system of mate selection in Pakistan, while a significant number appear ready to challenge the traditional norms. The seeds of social change are, without question, present. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An effort is made to determine what degree of social change might be detected in attitudes of middle- and upper-class male and female graduate students at two universities in Pakistan in 1963, toward dower and dowry, when compared to actual practices as shown by data for the period 1961–1964 collected in middle- and upper-class areas of Karachi. Dower is legally required of all bridegrooms and, although dowry is not, some is always provided for the bride. There is a strong indication of a desire for economic independence on the part of students, as reflected by the highly negative attitudes toward the current institutionalized system of dower and dowry. However, most students are likely to conform to the current practices of their families for the foreseeable future. Within the context of traditional arrangements, attitudes reflecting ‘modernity’ are manifested that are not in conflict with contemporary norms. More definite signs of change must await replicative studies at periodic intervals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In terms of quantitative comparative data Middle Eastern countries report systematically the lowest female participation rates in economic activities outside of agriculture. This behavior represents a deviation from the current experience of other developing nations and from the historical experience of the now-industrialized West. Using comparative data on female employment patterns in Latin American countries which are at roughly a similar stage of economic development, it is shown that the low level and particular character of women's involvement in the work force in the Middle East can be explained by institutional arrangements contingent upon aspects of social structure. Five countries are selected for intensive analysis: Chile, Mexico, Egypt, Morocco and Pakistan. One major aspect of social organization and its cultural adjuncts is emphasized: The interplay between the volitional avoidance by women of certain occupational sectors because of the social stigmatizing aspect and the prohibition of occupational opportunities imposed by males. The combined effects of this tradition of female seclusion and exclusion are confirmed by the detailed analysis of the structure of the non-agricultural labor force: Middle Eastern women are absent systematically from occupational and industrial sectors of employment which involve public activity and presuppose contact with males. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Infant mortality trends in a rural area of East Pakistan are analyzed utilizing the Bogue pregnancy history technique. The findings indicate that infant mortality has declined slightly over 20 percent between 1958 and 1967. The existence of development programs in women's education and family planning since 1961 are proposed as possible reasons for this finding. A convergence in infant mortality rates to mothers in the age range 15-39 years was found in the final year under analysis, while the standard U shaped pattern of infant mortality with age structure was exhibited in the previous years. One possible explanation for the con- vergence is that the development programs are reaching women within this age range more equally than in the past. An alternative explanation relating to the problems of recall of mortality events was discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to achieve its target of reducing the birth rate from 50 to 40 per thousand in five years, the Pakistan Family Planning Program selected the IUCD as the cheapest contraceptive method available offering greatest promise for prolonged protection through a single act. Since rural Pakistani women will not accept lUCD insertion from male doctors, the scarcity of female physicians necessitated the training of paramedical personnel for the IUCD program. About 600 LHVs (Lady Health Visitors)----MCH workers with 27 months training-have been given an additional course in family planning. Because of acute person net deficiency in East Pakistan, a new cadre of LFPVS (Lady Family Planning Visitors) was given a year's training emphasizing instruction in selection of cases and insertion of IUCD. Six mouths later, in November, 1966, LFPV training was also begun in West Pakistan. To date, 465 LFPVs have been graduated and 250 more are in training. These paramedicals, who are proving effective workers at the village level, are now doing 70-80 percent of IUCD insertions. (More than 500,000 insertions were reported last year by paramedical personnel). Supervision is provided by technical officers (MBBS doctors) at the district level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Demography (Springer Nature) is the property of Springer Nature and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The article focuses on the educational efforts in the implementation of rural family planning programs in East Pakistan. The government's need to discover and evaluate practical educational approaches which would be effective in family planning led to the establishment in 1961 of the project described here. The project is guided by an agreement signed by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Social Welfare of Pakistan and the University of Dacca. The pilot project, which came to be called the Public Health Education Research Project, was placed in Dacca and began its initial studies in this urban center, extending work later into rural areas of Dacca District. The initial rural pilot efforts were carried out in five laboratory villages, mainly to work out the mechanics of introducing a family planning program and conducting research at the village level. These villages also served as a training ground for family planning field workers. The basic objective at the outset of any family planning program is to bring family planning first to those in the population who, through personal recognition of the problem, are ready to adopt methods to control births. The second and more important objective, however, is to gain adoption of family planning by a sizable percentage of any given population as early in the reproductive years as possible.

The article reports the results of a family planning survey made in Dacca, East Pakistan, during January, February, and March of 1963 by the Public Health Education Research Project in Dacca. The data presented constitute the "before" survey of a family planning action program called "The Dacca Family Growth Study," the purpose of which was to measure the relative effectiveness of three approaches for education to men only, to women only, and to both men and women. "The Dacca Family Growth Study" provides the first family planning survey data in an urban setting in East Pakistan. The potential survey population consisted of all couples who were residents in three selected government employee-housing colonies and who fulfilled certain other requirements. The interview schedules, structured in the Bengali language, were finalized only after careful pretests. The schedules were almost identical for husbands and wives, with additional screening questions in- eluded for husbands. Questions were asked about the respondent's social background, marital history, fertility, knowledge and use of birth control, motivation for birth control, and attitudes toward birth control.

The article reports on some early findings of a survey on fertility in five villages in East Pakistan and the case records of women who tried or adopted family planning after an educational project. An examination of the social characteristics of the adopters is made to indicate which segments of the rural population are most ready to adopt family planning. The data indicate that under certain rural conditions--(1) extreme poverty, (2) extreme population density, and (3) little expansion of economic opportunities for the lowest classes--the poorest and least educated may nevertheless be induced to adopt fertility control practices. Moreover, they may be as likely to adopt family planning as others more educated and prosperous. of the situation. It should also be noted that family planning was introduced into those villages initially through the resolution of the village cooperative societies, and so the society's initial sanction may have opened up the subject, acting as a group leader. The adoption took place after an educational program having an intense promotional effort with local villagers as teacher-agents, using non-medical methods of contradiction.

The article reports on a two-year experience of a population control action research in a rural area in the district of Comilla in East Pakistan. The first part of the article describes some preliminary findings on the characteristics of the rural population, including their attitudes and beliefs toward fertility control. The second and the third parts, respectively, describe the character and findings of the action programme and some observations and implications. The Comilla project was initiated in March 1961. In July 1960 the Government of Pakistan launched a national programme of family planning. In this connection the Central Government requested the Pakistan Academy for Rural Development, Comilla to include family planning in all its training courses and to assume specific responsibility of training the newly appointed family planning officers in the Province. The action programme is based on the hypothesis that family planning is a problem of modernization. Its success depends on a programme of extension of education including diffusion and dissemination of knowledge and skill, provision of supplies and professional services accruing from trial acceptance of the innovation.

This article highlights the common problem in international trade theory in Pakistan. Dependence on the commodities for foreign exchange and for government revenues obtained through export taxes or multiple exchange rate systems. Emergence of alternative supply sources for the international market, or the development of substitute products. Case of intermediate goods that lack the support of strongly consumer preferences.

The article comments on economist Deena R. Khatkhate's analysis on effect of foreign surplus disposal on underdeveloped economies. The author suggests that Mr. Khatkhate has placed too much reliance on the well-known theory of the backward doping supply curve in underdeveloped countries as a basis for ruling out potential adverse effects of surplus disposal on agriculture. He argues furthermore that the surplus disposal program as it has been administered in Pakistan has had substantial negative income effects for agriculture, very likely retarding the agricultural development effort in that country. The author says it would be unfortunate to end this brief comment on a negative note. After all, few would be prepared to argue that the basic idea behind commodity aid or the Food for Peace Program is bad and that the program should be discontinued. Rather this note is intended to convey that the quantity of surplus commodities that can be absorbed by a developing economy without negative effects may be smaller than the total needs of the country would indicate because of organizational difficulties in distribution and processing and in project development.

The Export Bonus Scheme in Pakistan export-promotion measure in a regime of exchange controls, preserve protection for the import-competing industries by comparison with devaluation and free trade for the Scheme is a devaluation at different rates for importers and exporters and provides two different rates of subsidy to exports and import substitutes. Hence in order to ensure that resources do flow into the export sector to the "desired" extent, the discrepancy between the marginal profitabilities of investment in the export and the import-substitution sector that Scheme fails to correct must also be minimized by equalizing the subsidies on exports and those on the production of importable produced at home. For resources will then be optimally allocated by the market between the export sector and the import-substitution sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Explores the factors affecting the growth of Pakistan's economy. Economic distinctions between Hindus and Muslims; Entrepreneurship; Partial modernization.

Analyzes the organizational context of the rural development projects at Comilla, East Pakistan. Social and economic aspects of rural life in Pakistan; Changes in the agricultural technology; Differences in social status; Commitment to the material improvement of living conditions in the Comilla projects; Potential for industrial development.

Focuses on the role of the rural development project, the Pakistan Academy Development at Comilla, as a social scientific natural experiment and a description of the social research in Pakistan. Problems encountered by the social research elements of the Academy; Types of research; Comparison between the field experiment and the natural experiment.