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The paper provides a conclusion to a series of articles about the approaches to the problems of war and peace. One paper distinguishes between those who do research in terms of governments and those who do research in terms of peoples. It is possible to make another distinction which overlaps to some degree the first two. This is a distinction between those who approach the problem in terms of macroscopic units, such as the nation, and those who essentially use the individual as their unit of analysis. Of the papers presented, one came close to the first type of emphasis. Operational research and regulatory research, would also fall in this category. Along with this difference in terms of the units of analysis used in the two approaches, there appears also to be a difference in the assumption about the nature of the phenomenon of war. Those who deal with the individual tend to conceive of war as a deviation that essentially occurs because of some failure in the mechanisms of maintaining peace. The extreme of this position is represented by the psychoanalytic approach suggesting that war is an aspect of irrational behavior, related to irrelevant, personal motivations, usually traceable to childhood experiences.

The article presents a paper-and-pencil test that could discriminate the normal from manic and depressed states, a list of items was obtained which described behavior believed to be characteristic of these states. The test was ad- ministered routinely each week to patients on a research ward concerned with the manic-depressive illness. After five months, test scores were available from 9 patients who had been judged as clinically manic and 15 who had been judged as clinically depressed for various lengths of time.

The paper offers some critical comments concerning more general conceptual topics in psychological research in poverty. In passing, observations also will be made on empirical research in the field. In very general terms, the psychology of poverty can be seen as concerned with the relationship between environment and behavior. To put it another way, the psychology of poverty deals with the "interface" between the economic system and the individual: the relationship between a particular array of physical and interpersonal stimuli and psychological structure or overt behavior. Unfortunately, the researchers' theoretical and conceptual tools for analyzing such inter-level problems still are unsophisticated and unsystematic. Most extant psychological theories are woefully inadequate for dealing with the type of problems presented by poverty. A theoretical system bridging the psychological level and the level of the social (and economic) system within a single conceptual framework would seem to be most congruent with the nature of the problems encountered in research in poverty.

The article presents information on the relative efficacy of volition and justification in arousing dissonance. Dissonance theory continues to be an important source of insights for an impressive diversity of behavioral areas. Unfortunately, many of these exciting extensions are based on vulnerable foundations, core assumptions and propositions of dissonance theory are still in dispute. Unlike research derived from a systematic theory, dissonance research has not strengthened the basic statements and postulates that generated it, it has not clarified them, it hasn't brought them closer to the data level and it certainly has not been integrated into a neat unified system. Of the several areas in need of clarification, one concerns the conditions for dissonance arousal. It was to this problem, particularly the relative contributions of volition and justification in arousing forced compliance dissonance, that the present experiment and an attempt at formalization were addressed. A principal feature of scholars J.W. Brehm and A.R. Cohen revision of dissonance theory was the authors' insistence that the subjects make a choice, either between choice objects or whether or not to engage in a given behavior.

This article focuses on the result of the student's investigation on trap-door spider. The student noted the description of the spider as follows: it has large mandibles extending out from under the chitonous shield over the dorsal side of the thorax; it has four pairs of true legs and one pair of palpae which look very much like legs; it has eight small eyes on the forward side of the shield; and its abdomen is almost round and narrows to a small projection which joins to the thorax. Further, the spider lives in the ground and rarely comes out. In addition, the student also describes the trap-door spider hole.

A reinforcement analysis of fertility, emphasizing the principles of applied behavior analysis, shifts attention from response-inferred constructs (beliefs, attitudes, wishes, and preferences) to manipulable environmental variables demonstrated to be functionally related to fertility behavior. The analysis suggests a variety of relevant target behaviors to be strengthened by setting up appropriate reinforcement contingencies (incentive systems). Attention is paid to the practical difficulties that are met in any effort to manipulate important reinforcers for large masses of people. It is concluded that a functional analysis offers both practically useful techniques and a powerful research paradigm; the analysis should facilitate efforts by governments and other social agencies to lower fertility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on research in animal sociology. Research on the behavior of animals may provide insight into the human condition with regard to either its evolution or its present circumstances. The utility of such insights depends upon there being a relationship between the present human condition and its antecedents in simpler forms of mammals, or on the fact that comparable processes characterize both man and lower forms. Research on the behavior and sociology of animals other than man stems from two opposing perspectives. First, from the direct study of man insights develop which culminate in a paradigm amenable to exploration through the use of animal subjects. Second, on the basis of the knowledge of the evolution and natural history of a particular species one examines more rigorously the processes affecting the species in its natural setting or devises more controlled settings which will permit the process or phenomenon to be expressed in a more precise or exaggerated manner. This latter approach often produces insights not previously recognized on the human level, or which if seriously recognized may be seen in a different relationship to other processes.

This article relates the study on the comparison of the effects of observational learning and self-rating on the acquisition and retention of a questioning behavior by elementary science teacher trainees. It is an attempt to compare the relative effects of self-rating versus a film-mediated model. Self-rating condition is a procedure in which the trainee attempts to generate the criterion behavior prior to training and then rates his performance as part of the training, using a rater protocol which identifies correct responses. While, film-mediated model is defined as one in which the learner observes the actual filmed performance of another person who displays the behaviors to be acquired.

The article discusses the study of the social behavior of non-human primates in captivity. According to the research, social relations are found in female-female combinations. It is found solely in the infant-mother relationship characterized by affection on the part of the child and concern on the part of the mother. On the other hand, young-young relationships exhibit a weak social behavior. In a male-young behavior, social relation is characterized by dominance, grooming activity, and leader-follower position. Furthermore, it can be best observed the full range of social conduct in the male-female behavior.

The article presents a study on the analysis of a number of selected problems by Ninth Grade general science students. It was felt that a qualitative case study approach might be more productive than a quantitative one. One of the researchers suggested that pupils might be exposed to the same pre-arranged situations and differences in their behavior as noted in a number of respects. The selected problems were tested, revised and standardized, prior of using in the experiment. The experimental technique that was used in the research, utilized several discrete elements of former techniques, that were supplemented by additional original procedural innovations. Preliminary meetings were used for establishing personal rapport between the investigator and the subjects. A number of differences were indicated while comparing the most analytic protocols with the least successful analytic protocols. The evidence suggests a number of reasonable hypothetical implications that may be supported by subsequent research. The study suggests that the normal ninth graders could analyze many problems unassisted.

This study investigates the possible effects of divorce upon the behavior of adolescent children. A large sample of parents (N = 1,566) completed usable questionnaires; the sample was then divided into the independent variables of family type and social class and the dependent variables of adolescent characteristics and school social relationships. Nonsignificant differences were found for the majority of relationships tested pertaining to the detrimental effects of divorce upon children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Employing newly developed observational techniques, the authors recorded the nonverbal and verbal interactions between 6 young mental retardates and their mothers for 36 minutes on each of 2 occasions. Behaviors were analyzed according to their relative status, affection, and involvement components during each 4-second time interval, and patterns were derived by means of contingency analysis. The patterns common to the mentally retarded sample were compared with those derived from a comparison sample of 10 nonretarded 4- and 5-year-olds and their mothers. The patterns of a single retardate dyad were compared with the patterns characteristic of the group to illustrate the effectiveness of the method in highlighting the unique qualities of specific pairs. The study is intended to emphasize methodology primarily and data about the subjects only secondarily. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

4 simulates of child socialization were obtained by varying the extent to which a model verbally instructed and personally exhibited high or low standards of self-reward. Greatest adherence to a stringent norm occurred among children who were taught and who observed the model practice such a norm. Children who were exposed to a, self-indulgent model tended most to violate both stringent and lenient norms and to evidence ambivalent behaviors, while those who were exposed to a child-indulgent model violated the lenient norms least. While percept and precept were both powerfully influential for norm internalization, the latter was clearly the stronger determinant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A review of research indicates that the serious inadequacies experienced in school by disadvantaged children, especially Negro boys, have their origins primarily in prenatal damage, father absence, impoverished home environment, and dysfunctional patterns of child rearing. In an integrated classroom, these inadequacies present problems not only to the Negro child but also to his white companion, who is exposed to the contagion of disorganized and antisocial behavior. Finding of social psychological research call for a counterstrategy of active involvement in work with disadvantaged children on the part of middle-class children and adults of both races. The results are seen as benefiting not only the disadvantaged but also the advantaged child by providing him with needed training in actual behavior consistent with the democratic values of human dignity and social responsibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To investigate the role of linguistic competence and age in double alternation (DA) behavior, 60 hearing and 60 deaf children, ages 4-9, were tested on acquisition and 4 transfer DA tasks. Minimal success was observed at age 4, followed by marked improvement in acquisition and transfer for the hearing at age 5 and 6, respectively, and for the deaf I year later. At ages 7 and 9, hearing and deaf children performed similarly; both groups showed facility in transferring the DA rule in the presence of irrelevant cues. All-or-none success on the transfer task suggests that the irrelevant stimulus interfered with the initial reapplication of the DA rule. The younger deaf children's slight retardation may be due to linguistic and/or experiential deficiency. The comparable performance of hearing and deaf at the youngest and older ages tested suggests, however, that linguistic development is not a necessary factor for symbolic activity as reflected by DA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Data from an ongoing research project to determine the prognostic value of the Graham-Rosenblith behavioral assessments of newborns are presented. The 8-month status of 279 Ss (165 examined twice) is shown. The 8-month criteria include ratings of activity level; physical, mental, and social-emotional development; fine and gross motor coordination, and overall diagnosis. Both neonatal scale scores and ratings are related to various of the 8-month criteria. The particular neonatal measure, and whether it was from a first or second assessment, appears to affect both the degree of relation and the criteria to which it is related. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phenomenological personality theory is based upon the importance of determining how an individual views his world and how he reacts to these perceptions. The study has indicated the importance of applying this frame of reference to the study of interpersonal behavior in the family setting and has described a conceptual framework for research into family influences upon the personal and social development of children. One of the variables he cited was control of behavior. By control of behavior, reference is made to the physical and psychological guides and restrictions which the child perceives as being placed upon him by his parents and other family members.

The article presents information on the cognitive tuning set and behavioral receptivity to discrepant information. The objective of the present selective attention experiment was to increase understanding of information receptivity by examining a situational factor which might affect receptivity to consonant versus dissonant information. The situational factor is the individual's role in the communication process, specifically, whether he is set to transmit information or to receive further information. Scholar R.B. Zajonc followed earlier theorizing by Kurt Lewin in developing specific propositions about the effects on cognitive structure of cognitive tuning, that is, readiness to receive or transmit information Zajonc's cognitive tuning distinction has implications for selective attention. When set to transmit his impression to others, the person should tend to polarize, that is, he should tend to exclude or suppress or minimize one polarity of the contradiction and order the relevant cognitions around the other extreme. When set to receive others' impressions, the person should tend to suspend, that is, he should bring together or see as related the contradictions between cognitions by entertaining the opposing cognitive elements and minimizing their contradictions.

The article presents information on the elicitation of information and response biases of repressors, sensitizers and neutrals in behavior prediction. Repressor, sensitizer, and neutral judges predicted the responses of neutral targets on the Adjective Check List. Each judge was paired with a neutral target and interviewed him with the aim of getting to know him as well as possible. Hence, each judge elicited information on which to base his predictions. The groups did not differ with regard to content of information elicited or relevance of the information for criterion responses. Differences in predictions were noted which were consistent with expectations based upon the response biases of the judges. It was concluded that group differences in behavior prediction cannot be accounted for by differential elicitation of information in interpersonal interaction, but instead are determined by response biases. While groups differed in degree of activity in eliciting information from targets, the nature of the information did not differ with regard to interview content measures or judged relevance of the information for the predictive task. Hence, group differences in prediction cannot be accounted for by differential elicitation of information in interpersonal interaction within the limits of this study.

The article presents information on the eye fixation behavior as a function of awareness. When a stimulus is presented so faintly that the viewer is unaware of seeing it, his eyes should not behave as though he were inspecting it. This simple supposition has never been tested in all of the research on waking and sleeping eye movement. A direct way to test this supposition is by exposing a faint stimulus at graded increments of illumination and photographing the eye fixations at each stage. Inspection patterns of fixations might occur well before, just before, or only at the moment of awareness. If the method were to reveal "intelligent" tracking behavior before the reported awareness of seeing anything, it would be one of the most direct ways for exploring cognition without awareness. Not only unaware tracking of unseen stimuli may be revealed, but other eye behaviors as well. The fixations may fall on a stimulus by happenstance or by the viewer's naive reference for looking in a certain area of the field. Whether the viewer's looking is directed or by chance, the more the gaze falls on forms within foveal vision the more registration can occur. Registration also may take place even without eye fixations directed exactly upon the stimulus-information can be taken in through peripheral vision.

For years, researchers have been concerned with a person's ability to convey emotional meaning through vocal but non-verbal techniques. The basic procedure has been to instruct a speaker to express a particular emotional meaning, such as affection, by reciting letters of the alphabet, numbers, or some other mode of communication that eliminates potential verbal cues. The task for the S has been to identify the emotional meaning expressed by the speaker. The perception of communications of emotional meaning can be seen as a particular kind of social perception. The many investigations of the relation between social perception and interpersonal behavior have not, however, produced consistent findings. In view of the contradictory findings, attempts have been made to clarify the conditions under which accurate social perception occurs and the nature of the interpersonal relationships that exist. These attempts have been in the direction of affirming that the perceptual categories being studied must be relevant not only to the perceiver but also to his particular social situation.

This article presents stimulus-response analysis of inferences from projective test behavior. A stimulus-response analysis of diagnostic and predictive inferences from responses to projective test stimuli was outlined. Principles of stimulus generalization and associative chaining and also of conflict were used to illustrate development of such inferences as well as to distinguish possible sources of error. Response-response correlations of criterion-oriented validation studies were viewed as relationships which could be derived from stimulus-response principles. A similar interpretation was advanced for response-response laws which involve intervening variables. The objective of this article is the application of stimulus-response concepts and principles to: diagnosis of the immediate and more remote antecedents of responses to projective test stimuli; and prediction or postdiction of responses to other test and extratest stimuli. These applications, are more clearly dependent upon sets of principles than the relatively empirical response-response or criterion-oriented, laws of many validation studies. The response-response approach to test validation, however, can also be related more explicitly to sets of general principles. Accordingly, the second objective is a description of the place of response-response laws in the more inclusive stimulus-response analysis of diagnosis and prediction.

The article reports on the intercorrelated matrix of maternal and child variables. A study has correlated the mental scores of 13 age-level children with similarly behavioral ratings, as well as the mental scores of parental socioeconomic variables. An overview of the test methods used for the study and its hypothesis is offered. The research showed that the maternal's general behavior and attitudes affect the children's intellectual functioning. To illustrate, several figures and graphs are presented to show the correlations of maternal behavior with children's intelligence are presented.

The article examines the growing recognition on the importance of social influences in the behavior of children by research workers. Author E. Dewey cites the large gaps in infant behavior knowledge, and urges the study of the social environment as it affects the practice of developing skills. While K. Miles, summarizing the literature on sex differences, states that by nursery school age differential training of the sexes has begun. It is perceived that a group not merely exercises restrictive influence on the individual but presents him with opportunities for action.

The article examines several studies relating to social influences to child behavior. Ten types of studies that ranges from early long-range characterizations of environment and the companison of children from contrasting backgrounds to the controlled experiments and factorial analyses were considered. J. E. Anderson made a pioneer attempt to obtain a representative sampling of the entire preschool population of the United States. His study covers 4,000 young children in 3,000 families and reports size of family, type of home and education.

The article presents the summary and concluding remarks of the study on "Evaluations of Adolescent Personality by Adolescents." The research objective was to find out the relative values placed on 20 personality traits by girls and boys for the sexes distinctly at two age levels, 12 and 15. Factor analysis and correlation profile analysis were utilized to target constellation of traits. From ages 12 to 15, values for girls underwent some revolutionary changes, while values for boys had relatively minor changes.

This article focuses on a validation study of the L-M Fergus Falls Behavior Rating Scale. In connection with a large research project, a behavioral analysis of a state hospital population, it was decided to make a further study of the validity of this scale. During this investigation the question arose as to the influence on the ratings of the sex of the rater. So a ward on which male and female aides get to know both male and female patients was used to get comparable ratings by both sexes. The total population of Fergus Falls State Hospital, 1940 patients on 26 wards, was rated on the eleven areas of behavior used in the L-M Fergus Falls Behavior Rating Scale.

The article discusses comparisons of normal adolescents, psychiatric patients, and adults on internal-external control. Behavioral responses to rewards depend, in part, on whether the person perceives the reward as contingent upon his own behavior (internal-control) or independent of his own behavior and due to chance (external-control). The Internal-External Control Scale (I-E scale) was designed to measure the extent to which rewards are perceived as being internally or externally controlled. Development of the I-E scale and an extensive review of research with this instrument are reported by Rotter.

This article provide some validational data on researcher H. Stein's Sentence Construction Test (SCT) designed to measure cognitive disturbance through verbal behavior. Provided that the SCT can differentiate between degrees of cognitive disturbance, newly hospitalized psychotic patients should score higher than psychotic patients at the time of their release. No significant differences, in contrast, should be found between nonpsychotic admission and release patients, as cognitive disturbances are assumed to be only minimally evident in such diagnostic groups. The greater use of personal pronouns by the psychotic admission subjects supports one of Stein's hypotheses, which, however, was not substantiated by his own data.

The article presents information on the failure of some psychologists to individualize the client in their clinical reports, that is, to describe the client so that the reader knows how he differs from other people and in what important ways he is similar to others. The need for clinical psychological reports to more effectively portray the individual characteristics of the client was examined. Four types of report writing which defeat this purpose were discussed and remedial measures were suggested. There are several considerations which apply to individualizing a client in a psychological report. These may be used as guides for the psychologist to the extent his data permit.