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The identification of specific learning disabilities (SLD) remains fraught with controversy and uncertainty about professionals' capacity to appropriately identify special education eligibility. For students from linguistically minoritized backgrounds, the "exclusionary clause" prohibits the identification of learning difficulties primarily attributable to contextual or linguistic factors. Yet the ambiguity of the federal language may hinder application, making critical states' interpretation and corresponding guidance for professional practice in eligibility determination. In this archival study, we systematically reviewed state departments' education policies and related guidance on the identification of multilingual learners with SLD, with a focus on how states have articulated policies and procedures related to the federal exclusionary clause. Our findings demonstrate variability and depth of information across states pertaining to guidance regarding the exclusionary clause. Implications for practice and policy are provided.

Reflexivity, defined as the critical analysis of how one's identity and values influence their scholarship, has been underscored as a crucial element of antioppressive scholarship. Despite its importance, reflexivity, and particularly its documentation, remains relatively uncommon in school psychology scholarship. In the following commentary, we introduce the need for reflexivity as it relates to the field's commitment to antiracism, followed by a brief review of the literature on reflexivity, including its historical foundations and its previous applications within the fields of psychological research. We conclude with recommendations for the school psychology scholarly community for conceptualizing, conducting, and disseminating scholarship.

Although many disciplines saw increases in manuscript submissions coinciding with lockdown measures, numerous studies have documented widening gender gaps in academic productivity. Chi-squared analyses of gendered trends in first author manuscript submission in three school psychology journals during the initial phase of COVID-19 compared to the same time frame in the preceding 3 years did not reveal any significant associations. There was a significant increase over time in the gender gap, with a trend of more female authors than male authors. Women school psychology researchers may not have experienced similar detriments to productivity as in other disciplines, or such detriments were not reflected in submission patterns during this time frame. Limitations of the study and implications for school psychology are provided.

Disproportionality research has been subject to multiple reviews, but there has been less critical examination of the policy dimension of this enduring educational problem. Given the relevance of federal policies, and interpretations thereof, to educators' and scholars' conceptualization of disproportionality and schools' resultant policies and practices, we provide a brief overview of disproportionality scholarship before focusing on its policy dimensions. We describe the role of federal policy and resultant interpretations to how disproportionality is addressed and our approach to identifying and synthesizing these interpretations. We then analyze the themes apparent in these interpretations: requirements for states' numerical analysis of "significant disproportionality," parameters for school systems' allocation of resources for early intervening services when significant disproportionality is found, and schools' obligations for nondiscriminatory application of policies and procedures. Finally, we distill implications for school policies, practices, and procedures. We close with discussion of implications for how disproportionality is conceptualized and studied.

Empirical investigations have found trauma to be disproportionately concentrated in and experienced by minoritized communities (Gherardi et al., 2020; Muldoon et al., 2021). Although trauma also occurs as a result of natural disasters or accidental events, the effects of these traumas tend to be less severe than those resulting from events of human design (Muldoon et al., 2021). The genocide of Indigenous people and the colonization of their lands, the legacy of chattel slavery and ongoing state-sanctioned violence against Black people, the gendered interpersonal violence against women and LGBTQ people, the forced sterilization of disabled people, and chronic poverty are all reflections of a White supremacist, ableist, gendered, and materially exploitative system that has traumatized many. Thus, a commitment to trauma-informed practice necessitates reckoning with the social conditions which produce and perpetuate trauma. In Part 1 of the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) Social Justice Committee's (SJC) series on trauma as a social justice issue, Parris (2021) had noted the complexities of disparate exposure to trauma and access to related care, emphasizing the imperative for equity-centered trauma-informed practices. In this article, the authors further explore trauma as a social justice issue, starting with a synthesis of key trauma concepts and research on the developmental impacts of trauma, followed by a discussion on what it means to center equity in trauma-informed practice. [For Part 1 of the series, "Social Justice Committee 2021-2022 Focus: Trauma as an Issue of Social Justice," see EJ1311282.]

Children's low academic skills are associated with a variety of behavior problems and maladaptive outcomes throughout childhood and adulthood. Given the prevalence of behavioral disorders is approximately 19% of all US children, understanding of the mechanisms through which academic achievement and externalizing behavior problems interact can inform effective intervention to prevent persistent academic failure, chronic behavioral difficulties, and related negative long-term outcomes. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to systematically review research on the association between low academic achievement and externalizing behavior problems, as well as evaluate the research indicating causal linkages, if any, between the two domains. Five databases were searched, including OVID Medline, PsycInfo, Academic Search Premier, ERIC, Education Resource, and PROQUEST. Search terms included statistical designs that could support a hypothetical causal association (e.g., structural equation modeling). We screened a total of 1990 studies, of which 26 met the final inclusion criteria. In total, ten studies reported significant negative effects between the two domains, of which only six reported effect sizes that could be considered meaningful. All but two reported these effects in the direction of early externalizing behavior problems to later academic achievement. Overall, there was inconclusive evidence for either causal or predictive relations. Implications for future research and educational practice are discussed.

The health, economic, and social challenges associated with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) present a range of threats to students' well-being, psychoeducational experiences, and outcomes, spurring fears for a "lost generation." In this article, we present COVID-19 as a large-scale multisystemic disaster causing massive disruptions and losses, with adversities moderated by the intersectional nature of systemic inequity. We first synthesize the broad effects of COVID-19 as they relate to equity and social justice, followed by the major implications for students and schools, with a focus on intersectional systemic issues. We then propose foundational considerations and resources intended to usher a paradigm shift in how school psychologists' roles and activities are conceptualized in the years to come, ending with key imperatives for practice and graduate education in school psychology.

Youth with disabilities are overrepresented in the juvenile justice system, but few studies have investigated the mechanisms by which this occurs. In this study, we considered how juvenile court adjudication and length of commitment in secure facilities contributed to disproportionality in court involvement and detention, addressing an important gap in the intersection of disability and juvenile justice literature. Using linked educational and juvenile justice records of 41,812 youth, we sought to ascertain whether, among juvenile offenders, youth with disabilities had higher likelihood of adjudication as delinquent or placement in secure facilities for longer periods of time compared to youth without disabilities. Results indicated that youth with and without disabilities were adjudicated and placed similarly, suggesting that disparities contributing to overrepresentation of youth with disabilities in detained populations may manifest earlier in youths' involvement in the justice system. We conclude with implications for research, policy, and practice.

In the early months of 2020, it became apparent that this year would bring unprecedented challenges as the COVID-19 pandemic swiftly compelled the impromptu transition to remote instruction that required a level of triage, flexibility, and problem-solving few were prepared for. Inequities in distance education and broader structural inequities affecting learning have been laid bare by the COVID-19 pandemic (Sullivan et al., 2020). The current circumstances require a challenge of persistent patterns of oppression and to ensure that issues of equity are front and center. This article is the second in a series on how to leverage multitiered systems of support (MTSS) to advance equity in schools in the wake of the pandemic. As alluded to in Part 1, MTSS in and of itself is not necessarily a framework for advancing equity and social justice absent explicit efforts to challenge the assumptions on which decision-making and practices are based and to ensure they are not perpetuating systemic oppression (Sullivan et al., 2020). Here, the authors shift focus to Tier 2 and Tier 3 supports and offer considerations for how to best meet student needs through equity-focused MTSS. [For part one, "Leveraging MTSS to Advance, Not Suppress, COVID-Related Equity Issues," see EJ1266121.]

As noted in Part 1 of the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) Social Justice Committee's (SJC) series on health disparities, more than a century of scholarship has documented differential health outcomes among minoritized groups in the United States (Proctor et al., 2020). Most recently, the COVID-19 pandemic has underscored the stark realities of health disparities in the United States, especially for Black, Indigenous, and Latinx Americans who are four to five times more likely to contract the disease and two to four times more likely to die from it than White Americans (APM Research Labs, 2020). Unfortunately, COVID-19 is just one example of ubiquitous inequities in health (Weinstein et al., 2017). In Part 2 of this series, the authors summarize the historical foundations of these disparities. In doing so, they reject simplistic, ahistorical rationalizations framing health disparities as resulting from personal choices while ignoring the sociopolitical and historical context. In particular, these contexts create the differential opportunities, resources, and access reflected in social determinants of health and associated affordances related to persistent health disparities that are seen today. History is critical to comprehending how structural forces and disparities were constructed and built into our society as well as to perceiving pathways to reducing inequities through an understanding of the institutions, policies, biases, and norms that created and sustain them (Fleming, 2020). [For Part 1 of the series, "Social Justice Committee 2020-2021 Focus: Health Disparities and Social Justice," see EJ1269560.]

The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated school, state, and federal responses to curb infection and resultant fatalities, including extensive school closures and reliance on distance education for a substantial portion of the academic year. This article considers the equity issues laid bare by COVID-19, followed by the implications for MTSS, with a focus on Tier 1.

Although disproportionality has been a focus of special education research for more than 50 years, relatively few researchers have addressed potential inequitable or inappropriate treatment of Asian American and Pacific Islander (AAPI) students in the United States, particularly in quantitative research. This multistudy investigation explored patterns and predictors of AAPI representation in special education using (a) data from states' federal child count reports and (b) a subsample of 4,290 participants from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study--Kindergarten Class of 2010-11 (ECLS-K:2011). Descriptive analysis of states' child count data indicated that, compared to White students, Asian and Pacific Islander students' relative risk of identification differed for most disabilities, with Pacific Islanders generally demonstrating higher relative risk. Multivariate analysis of the ECLS-K:2011 subsample indicated that ethnic group differences in risk of special education identification were not robust to sociodemographic and performance controls. We discuss potential contributors to these patterns and implications for research.

Large-scale analyses are a powerful and increasingly common tool for investigating a range of public health and social concerns (Pienta, O'Rourke, & Franks, 2011). This series will provide a primer on large-scale secondary analysis in school psychology, with this article focusing on considerations for researchers interested in applying and reporting on large-scale analyses. It discusses the advantages of this type of analyses, limitations to be aware of, and other considerations for researchers. Part 2 will provide guidance for school psychologists as consumers, including guidelines for evaluating the quality of secondary analyses and deriving practical applications. Part 3 will discuss issues involved with dissemination of these kinds of analyses in social media and other channels outside of journals.

Nearly one in four students residing in the United States is from an immigrant family and these children's school readiness is related to their parent's nativity and other sociodemographic characteristics. Social-emotional skills are an important conduit for academic development, yet these relations have not been explored for children from immigrant families. This study utilized the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study--Kindergarten Class of 2010-2011, a nationally representative sample of 13,400 students in the United States, to compare the social-emotional development of kindergarten students from immigrant and nonimmigrant families, and to determine the relations of social-emotional functioning to kindergarten achievement. Results indicate elevated social-emotional functioning among children from immigrant families, particularly those who emigrated immigrated from Mexico, compared with children of U.S.-born parents. Parent nativity predicted reading achievement, but not mathematics performance, even when controlling for sociodemographic factors and social-emotional skills. This study suggests an immigrant advantage in early social-emotional development. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Men continue to outnumber women in many Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics fields, particularly technical fields such as engineering and computer science. Educational interventions aimed at addressing the gender disparity between men and women have generally focused on increasing the interest of girls and women during high school and college. There is limited research on interventions that take place during the formative early childhood years. This study addresses this gap by working with young children (ages 5-7) and exploring their newly forming attitudes and interest in technology and engineering. The study asked the following research questions: (1) What are children's initial attitudes and ideas about technology and engineering? (2) Do boys and girls differ in their initial attitudes about technology and engineering? (3) Does participation in a 7-week KIBO robotics curriculum have an impact on children's attitudes and ideas about technology and engineering? (4) Do boys and girls perform differently on robotics and programming tasks in early childhood? To answer these questions, public school children in Kindergarten through second grade (N = 105) participated in an introductory KIBO robotics curriculum. Data was collected on their attitudes toward technology and engineering before and after participation in the curriculum as well as their mastery of programming concepts taught. Results provide preliminary evidence that a developmentally appropriate robotics curriculum can increase girls' interest in engineering.

Although instances of discrimination are increasing across US schools, little is known about the relations of discrimination to mental health outcomes across the full range of school ages or how experiences of discrimination interact with various sociodemographic characteristics. This study entailed analysis of data from approximately 60,700 respondents to the 2011-2012 National Survey of Children's Health to explore the associations between racial/ethnic discrimination and depression, anxiety, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder for children and youth ages 6-17. Multivariate logistic regression indicated that experiencing racial discrimination was associated with significantly increased odds of having a range of mental health problems including depression, anxiety problems, and behavior disorders. Moreover, an interaction effect was observed between discrimination, race, and anxiety. No interactions were observed for variables related to age groupings. Implications for school-based mental health practitioners and researchers are discussed.

The overrepresentation of youth with disabilities in the juvenile justice system is a persistent concern, but estimates of their involvement vary dramatically due to differences in how disability is conceptualized and when involvement in juvenile justice is measured. This study linked juvenile court and educational records for 230,760 students in one state to describe the involvement of students with and without disabilities in juvenile court. Overrepresentation of students with disabilities was not robust to sociodemographic controls (relative risk ratio [RR] = 1.07) but varied by disability category such that students with emotional or behavioral disorders (RR = 1.98) and other health impairments (RR = 1.12) remained overrepresented. Students with disabilities were charged with more severe offenses than their peers without disabilities and were more likely to be petitioned to court with a higher degree of offense even after controlling for the type of offense. Implications for policy, practice, and research are discussed.

Recent studies report the cumulative prevalence of behavioral disorders among school-age children to be second only to anxiety disorders. Unfortunately, by the time behavior has been identified as needing special education services, patterns of disruptive and externalizing behavior have often become unremitting. If at-risk behavior can be reliably identified at school entry, there is potential to intervene early to reduce severity and chronicity of behavior. Thus, with the aid of a nationally representative sample (n = 17,490), this study aimed to ascertain if teacher-observed disruptive behavior in kindergarten predicted children's categorical identification for special education and receipt of behavior goals in their individualized education plans in third grade. Results indicated externalizing behaviors and approaches to learning at school entry, predicted identification with emotional disturbance, and other health impairment due to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in third grade. In addition, externalizing behaviors at school entry increased the likelihood of a child receiving an individualized education plan with an appropriate behavior goal. Self-control was not a significant predictor of any outcome. Finally, the covariates of sex, reading achievement, and race at school entry were significantly associated with a child's need for behavior-related services. Implications for early intervention are discussed.

Aim/Purpose: Educational robotics competitions are a popular way to increase students' interest in science and engineering during their K-12 years. However, female students are typically underrepresented in these competitions. The goal of this study is to determine differences in the experiences of male and female robotics competition students in order to better support female students and increase their representation in competition leagues. Background: VEX Robotics Competitions are one of the fastest-growing educational robotics competitions available to middle school and high school students around the world. Despite growing numbers of participants, VEX programs have a noticeable lack of female participants. In order to create a more diverse and representative program, it is important to investigate why fewer female students participate in the competitions and what can be done to better support female students. Methodology: Qualitative and quantitative data were collected from VEX mentors and students through online surveys. A total sample of N=675 VEX mentors and students participated (n=47 students and n=628 mentors). The surveys asked scaled, multiple choice, and free response questions. Through these surveys, the following research questions are answered: (1) What (if any) are the differences between male and female student experiences with VEX?; (2) What (if any) are the differences in male and female students' confidence in their technical ability?; and (3) What (if any) are the differences in male and female students' performance on VEX related robotics team tasks? Contribution: This study contributes to the growing body of work on engaging female students, and other underrepresented students, in STEM fields such as programming, engineering, and robotics. Findings: Results demonstrate the male students outnumber female students and male mentors also outnumber female mentors in this sample. Male students are significantly more confident in their general technical ability and their ability to put things together (p<0.05) and students of both genders generally wished to have more female students on their teams. Results also indicate that mentors generally perceive their female students as requiring more help and that they are less engaged with construction tasks as compared to male students. Recommendations for Practitioners: VEX mentors should focus on enhancing female students' confidence with the construction and building aspects of robotics and ensuring they get the same experience with these tasks as male students. They should consider providing supplemental hands-on training sessions, within or outside of regular team sessions, for students who wish to build confidence and experience in these areas. Recommendations for Researchers: Researchers should continue to explore the experiences of female students in robotics competitions, including differences based on grade level, mentor gender, and more. Researchers should additionally look at female students who are not a part of robotics teams (or who have left a robotics team) to understand why these teams do not appeal to them. Impact on Society: Women are still underrepresented in engineering and computer science professions. In order to bridge this gap, it is critical to find effective ways to reach girls in their K-12 years to build their confidence and interest in these fields before they reach college. This study points out critical areas where robotics competition teams should focus on building female students' confidence. Future Research: The findings in this paper present research from year 1 of a multi-year longitudinal study. Future research will continue to track the mentors and students in this study in order to gain information on retention and change over time.

Aim/Purpose: This paper aims to explore whether having state Computer Science standards in place will increase young children's exposure to coding and powerful ideas from computer science in the early years. Background: Computer science education in the K-2 educational segment is receiving a growing amount of attention as national and state educational frameworks are emerging. By focusing on the app ScratchJr, the most popular free introductory block-based programming language for early childhood, this paper explores if there is a relationship between the presence of state frameworks and ScratchJr's frequency of use. Methodology: This paper analyzes quantitative non-identifying data from Google Analytics on users of the ScratchJr programming app. Google Analytics is a free tool that allows access to user activity as it happens in real time on the app, as well as audience demographics and behavior. An analysis of trends by state, time of year, type of in-app activities completed, and more are analyzed with a specific focus on comparing states with K-12 Computer Science in place versus those without. Contribution: Results demonstrate the importance of having state standards in place to increase young children's exposure to coding and powerful ideas from computer science in the early years. Moreover, we see preliminary evidence that states with Computer Science standards in place support skills like perseverance and debugging through ScratchJr. Findings: Findings show that in the case of ScratchJr, app usage decreases during the summer months and on weekends, which may indicate that coding with ScratchJr is more often happening in school than at home. Results also show that states with Computer Science standards have more ScratchJr users on average and have more total sessions with the app on average. Results also show preliminary evidence that states with Computer Science standards in place have longer average session duration as well as a higher average number of users returning to edit an existing project. Recommendations for Practitioners: Successful early childhood computer science education programs must teach powerful ideas from the discipline of computer science in a developmentally appropriate way, provide means for self-expression, prompt debugging and problem solving, and offer a low-floor/high-ceiling interface for both novices and experts. Practitioners should be aware in drops in computer science learning during the summer months when school is not in session. Recommendation for Researchers: Researchers should consider the impact of state and national frameworks on computer science learning and skills mastered during the early childhood years. Researchers should look for ways to continue engaging students in computer science education during times when school is not in session. Impact on Society: Results demonstrate the importance of having state CS standards in place to increase young children's exposure to coding and powerful ideas from computer science in the early years. Moreover, we see preliminary evidence that states with Computer Science standards in place support skills like perseverance and debugging through ScratchJr. Future Research: Future research should continue collecting Google Analytics from the ScratchJr app and track changes in usage. Future research should also collect analytics from a wide range of programming applications for young children to see if the trends identified here are consistent across different apps.

When youth experience psychosocial difficulties, multiple sectors of care may intervene. The present study examined the prevalence and sociodemographic predictors of multisector involvement related to psychosocial difficulties among adolescents with disabilities. Using a nationally representative sample of 9,230 students who participated in the National Longitudinal Transition Study--2, we estimated students' rates of involvement in school, health, social service, and juvenile justice sectors and used logistic regression models to ascertain the relations to student characteristics. Students with disabilities were frequently involved with a variety of sectors of care, but schools remain the primary provider. Multisector involvement was commonplace, particularly for adolescents with emotional disturbance or autism. Disability and insurance type consistently predicted involvement of each sector, but other sociodemographic characteristics commonly related to disparities in involvement were not significant in most of our models. Communication and collaboration across systems can support the school-based problem solving and individualized planning for students with disabilities.

Many school psychologists spend a large portion of their time conducting evaluations for special education, but school psychologists' confidence in learning disability (learning disability[ies] [LD]) identification has not been examined experimentally. This study examined differences in 376 school psychologists' confidence in their identification decisions across LD identification methods, student evaluation data conclusiveness level, school psychologist experience, identification consistency, and identification methods used in practice, preferred identification methods, and identification methods taught in graduate school. The school psychologists reported lower levels of confidence when using response to intervention (RtI) compared with ability-achievement discrepancy, and they reported lower levels of confidence when student data were inconclusive compared with when student data were conclusive that a student did not have LD. Higher levels of experience and training did not increase the likelihood of greater confidence compared with lower levels of experience and training. However, school psychologists who reported "somewhat confident ratings" were more likely to make inconsistent identification decisions than school psychologists who reported "not very confident" ratings. Implications for practice and research are discussed.

This article provides an overview of the journal Exceptional Children (EC) and its goals of promoting equitable educational access and outcomes for children with disabilities. The editors emphasize the importance of inclusiveness and diversity in the publication process, as well as expanding the theoretical and methodological diversity of scholarship in EC. The newly appointed associate editors, who come from diverse backgrounds and have expertise in various areas related to the education of students with disabilities, are introduced. The article also includes summaries of recent research articles on a range of topics related to special education. [Extracted from the article]

This article is the third installment in a series regarding the conduct, dissemination, and consumption of large-scale secondary research. See Part 1 on conducting secondary analysis (Sullivan et al., 2020) (EJ1239445) and Part 2 on practitioners' use of this research (Kulkarni et al., 2020) (EJ1248185). The purpose in this final installment is to describe considerations for engaging in or with science communication via popular media, including sharing via social media. Although presented through the lens of large-scale secondary research, many of the principles apply to other research approaches. As this series draws to a close, the authors hope that their perspective on conducting and using this type of research will assist school psychologists in ethical research conduct and use that ultimately enhances the capacity to provide high-quality evidence-based services to all students in schools.

As frequent consumers and disseminators of research, school psychologists have an ethical obligation to critically evaluate the findings of studies (National Association of School Psychologists, 2010); however, this can feel burdensome when studies are behind paywalls and require hours to properly scrutinize. Particularly when studies utilizing secondary analysis boast of large sample sizes, fancy statistical terms, and a complicated method section, it is easy to be seduced by the complexity of the data and methods, or simply the stature of the journal. That said, school psychologists should all bear in mind the aphorism that "extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence." Findings from large-scale secondary analyses are not, in and of themselves, extraordinary. Critical consumerism by all readers is especially important given that the peer review process, though currently the best process available, is not as reliable or discerning as one might hope to believe. The authors argue here that one does not need a PhD in statistics to be able to critically evaluate this type of scientific article. This article, the second in a series on secondary data analysis, provides practitioners a primer to help them critically evaluate this type of research in an effort to support defensible and useful interpretations of published scholarship. [For "Large-Scale Secondary Data Analysis--Part 1: For Researchers," see EJ1239445.]

Social justice has been defined as fair and equitable distribution of resources, rights, representation, and treatment for marginalized people who do not possess equal power in society (Linnemeyer, Nilsson, Marszalek, & Khan, 2018). As a theoretical concept, social justice is an emergent area of inquiry in school psychology (Johnson, Bahr, & Navarro, 2017); thus, many school psychologists may be unsure of how social justice applies to their various roles and responsibilities. Malone and Proctor (2019) discussed how social justice is integral to school psychology practice and advocacy. In this article, the authors extend the conversation to school psychology research. Social justice research engages critically with structural inequities, oppressive forces, and power-laden discourses with the aim of creating a just and equitable society. Often used as one tool of advocacy, social justice research is the intentional use of inquiry to examine existing inequities or injustices, and ways to overcome them. In school psychology, this could involve investigating how cultural dynamics play out in the society, and the material or experiential consequences these have on historically marginalized groups. Additionally, it could involve research to understand not only what works, but why and how it works for different populations, particularly those who have been and are currently discriminated against, marginalized, and underserved, in schools and broader society. Research influences practice, and a stronger social justice research base is critical to moving social justice forward in the profession; as such, this article first delineates critical considerations for building a social justice research base in school psychology. Because social justice-oriented research responds to the existing social conditions, there is no universally agreed upon consensus about the characteristics of social justice research. The nature of such research is ever-changing, just like the society to which it responds. Nevertheless, the authors present an agenda for socially just research that values self-criticality and transdisciplinary work while promoting diversity in terms of epistemological considerations and research designs. They end the article with a discussion of ways school psychologists can use social justice research in their day-to-day practice to effect socially just outcomes for underserved, marginalized, and vulnerable student populations.

In recent years, Singapore has increased its national emphasis on technology and engineering in early childhood education. Their newest initiative, the Playmaker Programme, has focused on teaching robotics and coding in preschool settings. Robotics offers a playful and collaborative way for children to engage with foundational technology and engineering concepts during their formative early childhood years. This study looks at a sample of preschool children (N = 98) from five early childhood centers in Singapore who completed a 7-week STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics) KIBO robotics curriculum in their classrooms called, "Dances from Around the World." KIBO is a newly developed robotics kit that teaches both engineering and programming. KIBO's actions are programmed using tangible programming blocks--no screen-time required. Children's knowledge of programming concepts were assessed upon completion of the curriculum using the Solve-Its assessment. Results indicate that children were highly successful at mastering foundational programming concepts. Additionally, teachers were successful at promoting a collaborative and creative environment, but less successful at finding ways to engage with the greater school community through robotics. This research study was part of a large country-wide initiative to increase the use of developmentally appropriate engineering tools in early childhood settings. Implications for the design of technology, curriculum, and other resources are addressed.

Low-income children, particularly those with special needs, may have limited access to high-quality early care experiences. Childcare subsidies are intended to increase families' access to quality care, but little is known about subsidy use by children with special needs. Using a nationally representative sample of 4,000 young children who participated in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort, we examined the types and quality of childcare received by children with and without special needs who came from subsidy eligible families. We also investigated the extent to which subsidy use and child and family sociodemographic characteristics predicted care type and quality among young children with special needs who used childcare subsidies at 9 months, 2 years, and 4 years. Findings indicated that subsidies increased the use of nonparental care, mainly center-based care, as well as home-based care to a lesser extent among children with special needs relative to peers without special needs and relative to peers with special needs who did not use subsidies. However, use of subsidy did not consistently result in families with children with special needs accessing higher quality care. Sociodemographic characteristics of children, families, and their context were differentially predictive of type and quality care. We discuss implications for practice and policy to foster quality early care and education of young children with special needs who are receiving subsidies.

Aim/Purpose: Bioengineering is a burgeoning interdisciplinary learning domain that could inspire the imaginations of elementary aged children but is not traditionally taught to this age group for reasons unrelated to student ability. This pilot study presents the BacToMars videogame and accompanying curricular intervention, designed to introduce children (aged 7-11) to foundational concepts of bioengineering and to the interdisciplinary nature of scientific endeavors. Background: This pilot study explores the bioengineering-related learning outcomes and attitudes of children after engaging with the BacToMars game and curriculum intervention. Methodology: This study drew on prior findings in game-based learning and applied them to a videogame designed to connect microbiology with Constructionist microworlds. An experimental comparison showed the learning and engagement affordances of integrating this videogame into a mixed-media bioengineering curriculum. Elementary-aged children (N = 17) participated in a 9-hour learning intervention, with one group of n = 8 children receiving the BacToMars videogame and the other group (n = 9) receiving traditional learning activities on the same content. Pre- and post-surveys and interview data were collected from both groups. Contribution: This paper contributes to education research on children's ability to meaningfully engage with abstract concepts at the intersection of science and engineering through bioengineering education, and to design research on developing educational technology for introducing bioengineering content to elementary school children. Findings: Children in both groups showed improved knowledge and attitudes related to bioengineering. Children who used BacToMars showed slightly stronger performance on game-specific concepts, while children in the control condition showed slightly higher generalized knowledge of bioengineering concepts. Recommendations for Practitioners: Practitioners should consider bioengineering as a domain for meaningful, interdisciplinary learning in elementary education. Recommendation for Researchers: Design researchers should develop playful ways to introduce bioengineering concepts accurately and to engage children's imaginations and problem-solving skills. Education researchers should further investigate developmentally appropriate ways to introduce bioengineering in elementary education. Impact on Society: BacToMars introduces a meaningful scenario to contextualize complex concepts at the intersection of science and engineering, and to engage children in real-world, interdisciplinary problem solving. Future Research: Future research should explore BacToMars and bioengineering curricula for elementary-aged children in larger samples, with longer intervention times.