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Introduction: Distinguishing and categorizing the origin of garlic are highly significant, considering its widespread use as a flavoring agent. With billions of dollars annually in global trade, garlic is frequently susceptible to fraudulent practices. Methodology: Paper spray ionization mass spectrometry (PS‐MS) was employed to quickly analyze garlic samples from distinct geographic origins: China and Brazil. The so‐generated PS‐MS data were treated with metabolomic multivariate approaches, and the garlic samples from these different geographic regions were easily discriminated. Results: Brazilian garlic was characterized to contain higher levels of amino acids, such as arginine, proline, and valine, and organosulfur compounds, such as allicin, alliin, and l‐γ‐glutamil‐S‐allyl‐l‐cysteine, compared to Chinese garlic. The PS‐MS data were treated employing multivariate approaches, typically used in the metabolomics field, and this protocol was promptly able to discern among both types of samples. Conclusion: Hence, this combined strategy holds promise not only as an effective tool for the authentication of the geographical origin of garlic but also as a powerful means for biomarker discovery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The maritime sector plays a key role in transportation in the world, and over 90% of world trade is carried by ocean shipping. However, ships are large contributors to global emissions. Hence, a vast majority of research publications have focused on different emission monitoring techniques, which are essential to establishing required policies and regulations that reduce maritime transport emissions. Various documents have been published on monitoring maritime transport emissions affecting air quality since 1977. This paper presents a bibliometric analysis to explore evolution trends, gaps, challenges, and productive countries, as well as the most cited publications with high scholarly impacts. The annual growth of 9.64% in publications demonstrates an increasing interest in reducing maritime vessel emissions. Journal articles constitute 69% of publications, followed by conference papers (25%). China and the USA play a leading role in this field of research. Regarding active resources, the "Atmospheric Environment" journal accounts for the highest relevant publications, H-index, and total citations. Eventually, the temporal evolution of keywords shows the increasing trend towards sustainable maritime transport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the world tries to grapple with the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, there are concerns about the revivals of economies across the globe. The world is also trying to make sense of global restructuring trade, which is expected in the post-COVID-19 world. This paper attempts to analyze the emerging trade scenario between India and China. Atlas of Economic Complexity theory (ACE) by Ricardo Hausmann, Cesar A. Hidalgo has been taken as a base for this research. This study propagates that the countries with products that require more know-how have more potential to grow. Taking the Atlas map giving details of Indian exports as a base, the researchers have compared the data from the last two years. The purpose is to identify whether the complexity of Indian exports is increasing or not. A particular case study has been done on Indian exports to China. There has been little progress in this field as India is exporting more complex products slightly to China. There is an urgent need to formulate a strategy to enhance the complexity of Indian exports. The policymakers need to give impetus to the industries which have a cross-cultural demand in China and leverage this opportunity. This will open the path for consolidating India's position in the global trade as well as improving its strategic position vis-a-vis China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the steady growth in the recruitment and education of MBA students in China, there is a dearth of research on MBA students' perceptions of Business English Writing (BEW) in this context. This paper conducts a qualitative inquiry into Chinese MBA students' perceptions of BEW in English as a foreign language context in China. Forty-four MBA students of a ten-week BEW course participated in this study. An open-ended questionnaire was used near the end of the course to elicit their work-related writing needs, self-reflections on BEW abilities, and perceptions of the BEW course. A focus group was conducted with six students to provide insights into the students' work-related writing experience. The results showed that the students' work-related writing needs differed in terms of their respective job positions, with those working in foreign-funded enterprises or joint ventures having more job-related demands to write in English than those working at state-owned enterprises. Moreover, the students generally regarded their BEW abilities as moderately good or low, with distinct expectations of the BEW course raised. Pedagogic implications were drawn for improving BEW course in the Chinese context.

As an important foundation of cargo transportation, logistics plays a vital role in developing international trade. Based on the international logistics performance index (LPI) and the sample data of the "Belt and Road" initiative countries from 2011 to 2022, this paper uses the extended trade gravity model to explore the impact of the logistics performance of the "Belt and Road" initiative countries on China's import and export trade. The empirical results show that the improvement of the logistics performance level of the countries along the "Belt and Road" Initiative has a certain role in promoting the growth of China's trade volume to the country, and the improvement of LPI has a more significant positive impact on China's import and export to large-scale countries along the route. Finally, according to the analysis of empirical results, this paper puts forward specific suggestions to promote the development of logistics performance and import and export trade, which provides some reference value for implementing the "Belt and Road" initiative and improving national logistics and trade level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper considers China's economic development and place in the world economy. The People's Republic of China is becoming the most powerful country in the world in terms of GDP. Nowadays, China is an important partner in world trade both as an exporter and importer. Thus far, the United States has been the leading force in managing and coordinating the global economic and especially financial system, but now the economically advancing socialist China is a challenge to the USA. The Chinese model, socialism with Chinese characteristics, is discussed and compared with earlier stages of socialist construction, e.g. the NEP experiment of Soviet Union. The paper ends with notes about environmental and ecological problems, stressing the importance of socialist answers to these challenges. In this regard there are encouraging aspects in the current political program of the Chinese leadership. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Business English education concern is of great significance. Business English for International Trade in Guangdong University of Foreign Studies (GDUFS) is widely acclaimed, and it is also a popular major. GDUFS has adopted the slogan "Learn from East and West, moral integrity and direct behavior". It is a famous cradle of learning, where complex and capable persons are educated. Through review and reflection into the findings of the practice of business English in GDUFS and other instructions, this paper is aimed at analyzing the situation of the present curriculum, identifying existing problems such as the misbalance between the English courses and Business courses based on the theory of Needs Analysis, and then make some suggestions to increase the percentage of the Business courses and Business practices. In this way, this paper can serve as a reference for the curriculum construction of Business English for International trade in GDUFS.

Weak effectiveness of bilingual education is an especially obvious phenomenon in non-key universities of China where students have poorer English ground and bilingual curriculums are unconstructive designed partly because of the scarcity of teaching resources. This paper discusses failures of these unconstructive curriculum systems from the view of cognitive learning and points out that just because of the lags in BICS [basic interpersonal communication skills] and CALP [cognitive academic language proficiency] of students in non-key universities, metacognitive process should be substantially considered and completely integrated in construction of bilingual curriculum system including aspects of bilingual allocation, subject design, bilingual arrangement and prepositive training. This paper takes International Business Specialty in non-key universities as an example and highly involves writer's teaching experiences. (Contains 1 figure.)

Projections for the global economy frequently center on the BRIC countries: Brazil, Russia, India, and China. As futurists and economists alike define and re-define both formal and informal coalitions (for example, by broadening the R in BRIC to include all Eastern European economies or instead re-directing the discussion to G-8 countries or to World Trade Organization members), the education profiles of the individual nations sometimes resemble economic indicators: what is imported, what is exported, and what is the potential for expansion. Higher education, and specifically distance learning (the Clicks element of this paper), can already be charted in these terms for some nations. This paper describes the current role of distance learning in countries described as growing economies and proposes a typology for describing change as additional data become available. The paper informs readers of global developments in distance education, using the BRIC nations as examples.(Contains 3 figures, 4 tables, and 13 resources.)

HEIs (Higher education institutions) in mainland China are making enormous efforts to implement internationalization. As a result, EMI (English-medium instruction) courses are growing rapidly in number and popularity while relevant research is still insufficient in comparison to European countries. Besides, although much existing research has explored students' beliefs and attitudes towards EMI, little is known on whether their beliefs and attitudes may change over time or after the completion of a course, and on whether students' experiences in different EMI courses may differ. This paper specifically reports on students' perspectives towards different EMI disciplinary courses: International Trade, Film Production and Project Management. Pre-post semester student questionnaires are analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. Results show that students were generally positive towards EMI courses but their attitudes changed to worse at the end of the semester. Students in the International Trade course had more positive attitudes than students in the Film Production and Project Management groups. Findings are discussed in relation to classroom teaching practices in the three groups, which were observed three times over the semester. Finally, teaching implications and language policy-related decisions are also considered.

Theoretical ideas about globalization and internationalization of higher education emphasize the tension among different ideologies of higher education. According to literature, a competition among states, economy, knowledge, and status generates this tension to drive higher education development. This theoretical understanding not only shapes our global imaginations but also permeates the organizational behavior of universities. In this paper, we focus on the institutional logics that motivate universities in Kazakhstan to engage with China's ambitious Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). We investigate the ways that Kazakhstani higher education interprets and responds to China's vision of a global order. Based on interviews conducted at 10 higher education institutions (HEIs) in Kazakhstan, we argue that Kazakhstan's engagement with the BRI circumvents the cultural connectivity and global cooperation that are embraced by Chinese policy discourse and perpetuated by academic literature. Rather, institutional leaders in Kazakhstan operate with a utilitarian logic that seeks revenue generation, links with industry, and opportunities for students in employment and further education. The pursuit of these strategic outcomes demonstrates a bilateral engagement with China rather than the multilateral cooperation envisioned by policymakers. In a higher education system dominated by the state, the institutions in our study exhibit partial agency to accrue pragmatic benefits rather than concede to isomorphic pressures or mimic internationalization from neoliberal contexts. The discrepancy between policy discourse from China and policy reception in Kazakhstan raises questions about the rhetoric of a multipolar global order and the realities of international cooperation in higher education.

Accommodating to the development of globalization, China witnesses a mounting demand for international business talents who are proficient in both foreign languages and business knowledge and adept at international cooperation and competition in business context. In order to meet this need, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, taking advantage of its resources in foreign languages and outstanding professional teachers, made a breakthrough in multidisciplinary teaching reform and took initiative to set up the program of International Business Innovation Class in autumn, 2010. In July 2014, it has delivered its first batch of graduates. Hence, it is of great significance to conduct relevant investigations on the teaching mode and practice timely so as to obtain data for assessing its teaching effectiveness and students' satisfaction. Based on empirical study, this paper evaluates three factors: learners' recognition, features and problems of this program, which aims at identifying existing problems in practical teaching, improving teaching quality and students' satisfaction and proposing feasible suggestions to address them. In a broader context, it attempts to provide a quotable paradigm for similar innovation programs or similar institutions' internationalization.

Carbon emission reduction is an important means of achieving climate policy goals. However, the literature has neglected consideration of the carbon emission reduction mechanism from the perspective of technology risk spillovers in international trade. To explore this mechanism, this paper expands the classical linear model of foreign trade technology risk spillovers into a nonlinear spatial Durbin model. We construct a novel technology risk spillover index to forecast the magnitude of carbon emissions in agricultural trade across different regions. To validate our model, we consider the dual connotation of the spatial diffusion of disembodied technology communication (DTC) to map the relationships between different geographic and economic regions that are adjacent. The results suggest that disembodied technology risk spillover could promote carbon emission reductions. Specifically, technology risk spillovers from agricultural trade reduce agricultural carbon emissions by 0.79–1.16% in the local region. Disembodied technology risk spillovers also reduce agricultural carbon emissions by 2.85–11.57% in geographically adjacent regions and 4.9% in economically adjacent regions. Based on these conclusions, this paper proposes improving the closed and backward situation of rural areas in China's central and western regions, promoting the transition toward the high end of the global agricultural industry chain and developing productive agricultural services and the rural cultural tourism industry to expand rural employment channels and stabilize farmers' income. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we aim to document and analyze the long arc of connectivity between China and Latin America. First, using analytical international trade and economic tools, we provide a new economic perspective of the First Globalization–-the Ming and early Qing China's economic and business links with Latin America and Europe. Second, due to U.S. government trade policies toward China in the 1990s, the Second China's Globalization was ushered in with its entry to the World Trade Organization (WTO). During this second phase, China exchanged manufactured goods with minerals and resources from Latin America. Finally, the tough technology and trade stance by the Trump and Biden Administrations prompted China to intensify the third phase of China interaction with Latin America. For the 2020s and beyond, one important pillar of the Third China-Latin America-Europe Globalization is heightened efforts for China to increase its digital-AI, telecommunication and platform business presence and access into the Latin American markets. To enrich our analysis, we will provide Chinese-style digital-AI business and economic models to help illustrate our discussions. Throughout our paper, we want to point out that government policies were instrumental in bringing forth these Three Globalizations that involve China-Latin America-Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on a corpus of 296 authentic business emails produced in computer-mediated business communication from 7 Chinese international trade enterprises, this paper addresses the language strategy applied in CMC (Computer-mediated Communication) by examining the use of hedges. With the emergence of internet, a wider range of hedges are applied extensively in four types of business emails: marketing email, inquiry email, quotation email, follow-up email. Marketing emails have the most hedges while follow-up emails, quotation emails have the least, and inquiry emails in between. As plausible shields, modal verbs are massively adopted in four types of business emails to show politeness and eagerness for business partnership. Marketing emails employ adaptors and rounders to soften the exaggerated expressions in the introduction to the company and its products so as to make a convincing promotion. Both inquiry emails and quotation emails use adaptors and rounders very often when figures concerning products and prices are deliberately offered in a modest way for further negotiation. Follow-up emails use rounders, adaptors and attribute shield extensively in negotiating and reaching agreement. The three types of hedges help both parties to reduce risk and defend themselves against claims with tactic language strategy. The use of hedges in business emails demonstrates the flexibility of business communication with the help of IT technology. The rules of accurate expressions in business letters are no longer strictly observed in computer-mediated communication. The breakthrough of extensive hedge using in business emails showcases a change in business communication manners mediated by IT technology.

Purpose: This paper aims to investigate the multifaced aspects and consequences of the EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) from an Australia-China Relationship perspective. Design/methodology/approach: This paper leverages the SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) analysis to examine both the internal and external factors that affect Australia and China in the context of the CBAM. In addition, we employ the PEST (Political, Economic, Social and Technological) framework to identify effective strategies for Australia-China cooperation following the implementation of the CBAM. Findings: Our analysis reveals numerous mutual interests and opportunities for bilateral collaboration, despite challenges and threats, positioning the CBAM as a potentially significant catalyst for joint initiatives. Practical implications: This paper proposes 10 potential areas for Australia and China cooperation from the political economic social and technological PEST dimensions. Originality/value: This paper makes a pioneering attempt to explore potential strategies, both individually, and together, that Australia and China can adopt to manage the impact and consequence of CBAM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the relative influence of the volatilities of Chinese and American trade with Africa, by exploring the volatilities, their comovements, and four potential international drivers that can increase or decrease the volatilities. The drivers considered are Euro Area's trade with Africa; U.S. recessions; economic globalization; and fluctuations in China's economy. The paper employs the dynamic conditional correlation (DCC-) generalized autoregressive conditional heteroscedasticity (GARCH) model and monthly data spanning 1970M1 to 2020M07. The results show that, without controlling for drivers, the volatilities of Chinese and American trade with Africa are quite high, with similar magnitudes and significant comovements. When drivers are controlled for, Euro Area's trade does not influence the volatilities significantly. However, America's recessions make Chinese trade volatility to become higher, while economic globalization makes it to become lower, relative to America's trade volatility. These results imply that Chinese trade volatility is more influential than America's trade volatility, due to two international drivers. Furthermore, fluctuations in China's economy significantly influence the trade volatility of China itself and the trade volatility of the bigger economy, the U.S., which confirms China's significant international influence. One of the key policy implications of these findings is that globalization does not necessarily increase trade volatility in all contexts. This paper provides new evidence that in the context of a single trade market, globalization is an antidote of trade volatility because it involves the availability of diverse markets across the global economy, which consequently reduces the panic of traders within the single market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the 12th Five-Year Plan (2011--2015), the Chinese Committee of Science, Technology and Education, the main body for the central government's innovation policy, highlights the strengthening of the scientific--technological base and the upgrading of domestic innovative competences, and places the industrial focus on seven new strategic industries. Available data show that the transition is underway, from a Chinese growth model based on the availability of inexpensive land, investments, exports and a very large low-cost workforce to science-based and innovation-driven growth. However, the poor outcomes from public S&T expenditures suggest that future growth will depend on a different growth formula and that the greatest impact will come from an innovative innovation model. This paper focuses on an emerging Chinese innovation model that applies elements of cluster theory and the regional innovation systems approach to the next development stage of Chinese Special Economic Zones. The model also adopts features of the Triple Helix model of university--industry--government relations such as "systemness" and entrepreneurial universities to enforce regional innovativeness. The author outlines the management and governance challenges associated with the policy objective of moving from imitation to innovation. The paper is based on a study on cluster management for the German Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) 2009--2013 and on empirical research in collaboration with the Chinese Association of Developmental Zones (CADZ) in 2012. The study used 15 expert interviews with managers of Tianjin Wuqing Development Zone in the Beijing--Tianjin Corridor and with senior officials of CADZ, the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Ministry of Science and Technology, at the Second China German Innovation Forum held in Berlin on 26 and 27 November 2012. (Contains 13 notes.)

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to investigate the beliefs of undergraduate business students studying in Canada and partners in China about the quality of the program; what they consider effective signals of quality; and their willingness to pay to improve the quality. Design/methodology/approach: A survey was designed and distributed to 481 students in the transnational program during the 2009 and 2011 academic years. Statistical tests were conducted to examine mean differences in the perception of quality, different signals of quality and willingness to pay to improve quality. Findings: The findings of the study indicate that Canadian University and Chinese partner students, mostly in their final years of study, have similar beliefs about the quality of the program. They consider the program as good quality but not top rated. Chinese partners' students in their earlier years of study have a lower perception of quality but this gets better as they progress through the program. Students perceive high quality reputation and professional accreditation as equally important in terms of signalling quality. Finally, many students are willing to pay more to improve the quality of the program. Research limitations/implications: Some limitations of the study include convenience sample selection and size, translation of survey, the framing of the survey questions and controlling for factors such as grade point average, gender and other factors. Practical implications: The paper provides important information to monitor quality and to place a value on pursuing accreditation and tuition fee increases. Originality/value: Students' perception of quality has remained under-examined in the literature. The research establishes a framework which can lead to future explorations. (Contains 1 figure, 3 tables and 7 notes.)

While there has been an increase in students studying abroad in China, this increase has not been seen in the respective number of articles published in scholarly journals on education abroad in China. This paper summarizes articles from journals on the types of education abroad programs in China, organized by topic, and by the outcomes and benefits of the programs as stated in the articles. The basis for this review is relevant literature from full-text journals published from 1975 to 2013. Of 213 returns from an online search, 25 were relevant for this literature review. The benefits and outcomes of education abroad in China culled from this literature review are compared to the list of ten main outcomes of study abroad programs presented by Parsons (2010). In addition, outcomes not listed by Parsons were identified.

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to focus on Confucius Institutes and assess the applicability of theories of leadership and knowledge sharing to multinational organizations and worldwide networks. Growth of multinational trade and decrease in international tension have facilitated the globalization of both profit-seeking and non-profit organizations. Changes in economic and political environment have also blurred the divide in management practices between these organizations. Design/methodology/approach: The research applies recent theoretical developments to analyze leadership and knowledge sharing of the highly successful Confucius Institutes. Operational similarities and differences between this global learning organization and multinational businesses are evaluated. Findings: Many similarities exist between the operations of the Confucius Institutes and multinational businesses. For both, strategic goals are achieved through the promotion of global expansion and the management practices of distributed leadership and knowledge sharing. The study makes clear the successful application of distributed leadership to a worldwide network. The Confucius Institutes reflect the cultural and social changes in China, combined with influences of global cultures. Findings suggest that distributed leadership is a suitable management style for coping with variant cultural and socio-political conditions globally. This leadership style, combined with a knowledge-sharing network, is also suitable for the situational variables encountered in making thousands of decisions across hundreds of global locations by both learning institutions and business organizations. Originality/value: The paper explores a relatively new area of the similarities and differences between global non-profit and business networks as learning organizations. The study is of value to both those managing and those studying such organizations.

The rise of Brazil, Russia, India, and China will shape global resource use, the location of market demand and international institutions and interdependencies in the decade to come. In this paper we argue that an understanding of the historical and institutional context of the BRICs, and the potential shift towards a multi-polar world is important for developing curricula and content in international business courses in the future. Implications for international business theory and teaching are discussed. (Contains 4 tables.)

This paper summarizes the phenomenon of offshore outsourcing and relates it to the history and current state of engineering education and the engineering profession in Europe and the USA. In order to assess the climate affecting employment decisions by and about engineers we have used as sources mostly the serious press, with an emphasis on material dating from 2004 forward. The authors conclude that despite anxiety about the out-migration of engineering and technical jobs to places such as India and China, there is reason to see offshoring as the result of Western investment in capacity building in developing countries and to believe that the creation of new jobs will outpace the rate of job loss in Europe and the USA. The paper should serve as a prod to policy-makers and educators to set about creating an environment in which highly educated engineers and technical employees can continue a pattern of economic revitalization.

The Food Safety Knowledge Network (FSKN) is a collaboration between Michigan State University, the Global Food Safety Initiative of the Consumer Goods Forum, and other food industry and public sector partners. FSKN's goal is to help strengthen the food industry's response to the complex food safety knowledge and training challenges that affect emerging markets by providing free access to high-quality, standardized learning resources. The resources were designed to be available on demand and as a structured learning experience which can support face-to-face training and fully online training. The pilots thus far have shown that participants in FSKN training demonstrate a significant increase in knowledge. The paper will share the processes used to set up an efficient open educational resources initiative including understanding licensing, using open software, establishing competencies and working with corporate and other international partners. (Contains 2 figures.)

International trade in educational services has grown substantially over the past decades. Now it is a billion dollar industry including recruitment of international students, establishment of university campuses abroad, franchised provision and on line education. WTO [World Trade Organization] requires each member nation to make its own schedule of commitments in education services, and to explain its limitations on market access and national treatment as well as other limitations. In the schedules of commitments, commitments are split into two sections: First, "horizontal" commitments which stipulate limitations that apply to all of the sectors included in the schedule; these often refer to a particular mode of supply, notably commercial presence and the presence of natural persons. Any evaluation of sector-specific commitments must therefore take the horizontal entries into account. Second, specific commitments which apply to trade in services in a particular sector or subsector are listed. This paper examines China's commitments in education services under the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). It provides rough pictures about the impact of China's commitments on its education services.

Purpose: Marketing students need better grounding in understanding major worldviews of the twenty-first century, given nearly guaranteed, international interactions with stakeholders. As such, the purpose of this paper is to develop a pedagogy focused upon secular and religious worldviews that can be used effectively in the classroom. Design/methodology/approach: A cross-cultural study using data from the USA and China examines current worldview understanding among business school students. A training session in worldviews is then conducted, and a follow-up study is used to assess worldview learning and further interest in learning more about worldviews. Findings: Student understanding of worldviews is increased through a 1.5-h teaching session. Students' interest in learning more about worldviews significantly increased after the teaching session. Practical implications: Worldview training is an effective way to prepare students for interacting with stakeholders in the increasingly global world in which these students will eventually work. Business schools need to incorporate worldview training in international marketing courses, at a minimum, or offer complete courses in worldviews and related applications to business operations. Originality/value: Prior research has not tested worldview training on business students, especially when comparing student learning in a more religious-based culture (USA) and a more secular-based culture (China). Thus, this research shows that worldview training is effective regardless of the culture it is used in, which is important to informing students in a growing global marketplace.

In recent years the issue of how to fund an educational alliance, particularly at the tertiary level, has emerged as a complex and important issue. Previous research by Willis (2003) identified a range of funding sources available to Chinese and foreign universities to assist them to fund their various projects and activities in China, but did not discuss the issue in much more detail. The present paper takes the discussion further by identifying a range of "funding categories" into which alliances could be placed, depending on the nature and form of their funding approaches and strategies. For example, some alliances tended to opt for prestige, high cost and world class alliances. These were often expensive to manage and operate (and hence charged hefty fees) but sought to offer superb educational programs for their various student markets. Other alliance decision makers opted for a more pragmatic form of alliance, costed out at a more flexible and generally lower rate. A third group of alliance decision makers offered their programs and course at a cheap rate, usually by delivering basic, unadorned programs and courses, often using distance education modes of delivery. Some alliances adopted a very simple model: they simply charged the Chinese education market the same rate of fees and costs as in their home market, usually to disastrous affect--because they were simply too expensive for most markets in China. Others opted for volume based alliance tactics (seeking to attract large numbers of students to help cover their alliance costs), whereas another group felt that a more narrow and niche-like approach was preferable. The overall and seemingly most success trend was towards what can be categorized as "variable funding" alliances, where individual activities and programs were costed out (and priced) on the basis of a range of China based market factors. This more complex approach is a significant move away from more simplistic approaches which were, however, still much in evidence. The value of this paper is that it describes a range of categories and identifies some of the more successful and viable approaches, based on the views of respondents. It is hoped that the findings of the study add to what is a complex but important area of alliance activity. (Contains 2 tables and 1 figure.)