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This paper presents one of the first cross-nationally comparative studies on the economic and social returns to grit (perseverance and passion for long-term goals). Specifically, we investigated whether grit incrementally predicted objective (income) and subjective (job satisfaction) career success over and above cognitive skills and educational attainment; whether grit's association with career success was moderated by individual characteristics; whether grit's associations with career success varied across countries; and whether this variation could be explained by labour market conditions (unemployment rates). Multi-group structural equation models with data from 6,738 respondents from 19 countries revealed that grit was incrementally associated with income and job satisfaction in some but not all countries. Grit's effect sizes were mostly modest, yet there were some indications for variations by education and labour market conditions. Overall, these findings suggest that the associations between grit and career success are not uniform but vary across individuals and contexts.

This paper looks at the current challenge facing higher education by exploring the historical relationship between higher education funding and long economic cycles in the UK, USA and France. It examines the consequence of the transformation of public-private income in higher education that followed the 1970s downturn, questioning whether the rise of private resources acted as additional or substitutive resources for public spending. The paper suggests that there is a risk that the cost-sharing strategy could be turned into a policy of public-private substitution of funding and provision, leading to a transfer rather than an increase of resources with strong implications on quality and equity. However, the Kondratiev cycle suggests an alternative route by designating the impact of the 1970s economic downturn on education as unique. Previous economic crises were contemporary of accelerations of public funding towards education which in fact contributed to economic recovery. The current crisis could represent an opportunity to revive counter-cyclical policy by looking not only at efficient public spending but also at developing fairer taxation. A revival of public funding complemented by an additional rather than substitutive diversification of income would rebalance the public-private structure of funding and drive a sustainable higher education system capable of playing a key part in these counter-cyclical transformations. (Contains 8 figures.)

Ample evidence indicates that a person's human capital is important for success on the labor market in terms of both wages and employment prospects. However, unlike the efforts to identify the impact of school attainment on labor-market outcomes, the literature on returns to cognitive skills has not yet provided convincing evidence that the estimated returns can be causally interpreted. Using the PIAAC Survey of Adult Skills, this paper explores several approaches that aim to address potential threats to causal identification of returns to skills, in terms of both higher wages and better employment chances. We address measurement error by exploiting the fact that PIAAC measures skills in several domains. Furthermore, we estimate instrumental-variable models that use skill variation stemming from school attainment and parental education to circumvent reverse causation. Results show a strikingly similar pattern across the diverse set of countries in our sample. In fact, the instrumental-variable estimates are consistently larger than those found in standard least-squares estimations. The same is true in two "natural experiments," one of which exploits variation in skills from changes in compulsory-schooling laws across U.S. states. The other one identifies technologically induced variation in broadband Internet availability that gives rise to variation in ICT skills across German municipalities. Together, the results suggest that least-squares estimates may provide a lower bound of the true returns to skills in the labor market.

Conspiracy Beliefs (CB) are a key vector of violent extremism, radicalism and unconventional political events. So far, social‐psychological research has extensively documented how cognitive, emotional and intergroup factors can promote CB. Evidence also suggests that adherence to CB moves along social class lines: low‐income and low‐education are among the most robust predictors of CB. Yet, the potential role of precarity—the subjective experience of permanent insecurity stemming from objective material strain—in shaping CB remains largely unexplored. In this paper, we propose for the first time a socio‐functional model of CB. We test the hypothesis that precarity could foster increased CB because it undermines trust in government and the broader political 'elites'. Data from the World Value Survey (n = 21,650; Study 1, electoral CB) and from representative samples from polls conducted in France (n = 1760, Study 2a, conspiracy mentality) and Italy (n = 2196, Study 2b, COVID‐19 CB), corroborate a mediation model whereby precarity is directly and indirectly associated with lower trust in authorities and higher CB. In addition, these links are robust to adjustment on income, self‐reported SES and education. Considering precarity allows for a truly social‐psychological understanding of CB as the by‐product of structural issues (e.g. growing inequalities). Results from our socio‐functional model suggest that implementing solutions at the socio‐economic level could prove efficient in fighting CB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes the geography of multi-dimensional poverty across French communes in 2017. We build an extended data set documenting 7 key dimensions of well-being (income, unemployment, housing, education, civic engagement, life expectancy and air quality) in about 35,000 communes. Life expectancy at commune-level is obtained from an original small-area estimation method combining commune and department-level data. We derive an index of multi-dimensional poverty to provide an unprecedented degree of granularity in the description of spatial inequality and poverty in France. The results show that joint deprivation in at least 5 dimensions of well-being is starkly concentrated among 316 communes, representing as much as 5.2 million inhabitants (7.7% of the French population). About 70% of these people are also in extreme poverty, which suggests that the concepts of multi-dimensional poverty and extreme income poverty significantly overlap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Patient registration with a primary care providers supports continuity in the patient-provider relationship. This paper develops a framework for analysing the characteristics of patient registration across countries; applies this framework to a selection of countries; and identifies challenges and ongoing reform efforts., Methods: 12 jurisdictions (Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Ontario [Canada], Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom) were selected for analysis. Information was collected by national researchers who reviewed relevant literature and policy documents to report on the establishment and evolution of patient registration, the requirements and benefits for patients, providers and payers, and its connection to primary care reforms., Results: Patient registration emerged as part of major macro-level health reforms linked to the introduction of universal health coverage. Recent reforms introduced registration with the aim of improving quality through better coordination and efficiency through reductions in unnecessary referrals. Patient registration is mandatory only in three countries. Several countries achieve high levels of registration by using strong incentives for patients and physicians (capitation payments)., Conclusion: Patient registration means different things in different countries and policy-makers and researchers need to take into consideration: the history and characteristics of the registration system; the use of incentives for patients and providers; and the potential for more explicit use of patient-provider agreements as a policy to achieve more timely, appropriate, continuous and integrated care., Competing Interests: Conflict of interests None., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

This paper presents an analysis of heating expenses in a large social housing stock in the North of France. An artificial neural network (ANN) approach is taken for the analysis of heating consumption data collected over four years in 84 social housing residences containing 13,179 dwellings that use collective heating. Analysis provides an understanding of the influence of both physical and socio-economic parameters on heating expenses and proposes a predictive model for these expenses. The model shows that the heating expenses are influenced by both the buildings' physical parameters and social indicators. Concerning the physical parameters, the most important indicators are the area of the dwellings, followed by the building age and the DPE (energy performance diagnostic). The family size as well as tenant age and income have an important influence on heating expense. The model is then used for establishing a data-based strategy for social housing stock renovation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the joint long-run evolution of wealth and income inequality. We find that top wealth and income shares were cointegrated over the past century in France and the US. We rationalize this finding in two macroeconomic heterogeneous agent models featuring growth and incomplete markets, respectively. In both frameworks, the co-movement of top wealth and income shares is determined by the relative saving rate at the top, i.e. the ratio of the saving rate of rich individuals to the aggregate saving rate. Our empirical results suggest that relative saving rates at the top have been fairly stable over time, thus explaining the observed tight co-movement between top wealth and income shares over the past century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This group of articles discusses a variety of studies related to social security and retirement benefits. These studies are related to both developing and developed nations and are also concerned with studying work conditions and government role in administering a democratic social security system. (SSH)

In this paper, we examine the variation in the outbreak of COVID-19 across departments in continental France. We use information on the cumulated number of deaths, discharged patients and infections from COVID-19 at the department level, and study how these relate to income inequality, controlling for other factors. We find that unfortunately, inequality kills: departments with higher income inequality face more deaths, more discharged (gravely ill) patients and more infections. While other papers have studied the impact of the level of income on the severity of COVID-19, we find that it is in fact the dispersion across incomes within the same department that drives the results. Our results suggest that individuals in relatively more precarious conditions deserve dedicated policies, to avoid that temporary shocks such as COVID-19 lead to permanent increases in inequality.

This paper analyzes and compares different policy scenarios as well as discusses price elasticities and willingness to pay and to accept using revealed preference (RP) data from the French new-car market in 2014 by means of a cross-nested logit (CNL) model. We focus particularly on electric and hybrid vehicles. We use interactions between the cost (both fixed and running costs) and the household income to analyze the sensitivity towards different policy scenarios per income level. Results show that the willingness to pay and to accept obtained in our study is consistent with the real-market conditions. We also find that the most effective scenario to increase the market shares of new sold electric vehicles is that of a major technological advance such as a decrease in price due to cheaper manufacturing costs and an increase in driving range, rather than a policy-based scenario. In addition, the market segment that has more potential to increase the market shares of electric vehicle purchase is the middle-income level. In the paper, we discuss how to overcome the difficulties of working with revealed preference data, and propose multiple imputations to impute the attributes of the unchosen alternatives, by drawing from their empirical distributions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In most developed countries, the average income of female physicians remains much lower than that of their male counterparts. This paper analyses how much of the gender earnings gap among French self-employed physicians can be attributed to women's family responsibilities, choice of medical specialty, and opportunity to charge extra billings. The question is of growing concern for regulators because it may influence patients' future access to care. We used an exhaustive administrative database that merges information on the medical activity, earnings, and family structure of self-employed doctors in 2005, 2008, and 2011. Using the 2011 database, results suggest that when demographic and professional characteristics are controlled, female physicians still exhibit an annual earnings gap that varies according to family structure: having young children worsens the situation of female physicians, particularly GPs. Using our panel datasets from 2005, we show that there is a 'carer effect' of having children for female doctors that exacerbates the gender income gap, particularly for GPs. We do not highlight any real strategic behaviour of female specialists authorised to charge extra fees to increase their extra billings after a birth to maintain their previous income., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

This paper adopts a dynamic general nesting spatial panel data model with common factors to explore the effect of population density, real household income per capita, car fleet per capita, and real price of gasoline on departmental traffic per light vehicle in France over the period 1990–2009. Spatial heterogeneity is modeled by a translog function in the first three explanatory variables, which are dominated by variation in the cross-sectional domain, while the real price of gasoline, which is dominated by variation in the time domain, is treated as an observable common factor. Additional unobservable common factors are controlled for by principal components with heterogenous coefficients, building on previous work of Shi and Lee (2017a), thereby, generalizing the dynamic spatial panel data model with spatial and time period fixed applied in recent studies. It is found that the spatial lag in the dependent variable becomes insignificant due to these extensions. This paper explains the wider implications of this finding for spatial econometric modeling of cross-sectional dependence. In addition, the elasticities of the first three explanatory variables are shown to vary across space and time and to follow a plausible structure. Among other, an important result is that the long run income elasticity of car traffic diminished from 1.0 in 1990 to 0.4 in 2003, and then remained almost constant until the end of our sample period in 2009, i.e., during the peak-car traffic period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Response-based unit segmentation (REBUS) is an advanced partial least squares–structural equation modelling technique that clusters observations into classes based on the relationships among model constructs. In this paper, we demonstrate the application of REBUS in examining human capital (HC) and firm performance in the upscale restaurant sector – an important segment of gastronomic tourism in a destination. The model framework is developed from HC theory which posits individuals who develop higher levels of knowledge, skills, education and other competencies will outperform others [(Bruce, M., McNally, J. J., & Kay, M. (2013, March). Examining the formation of human capital in entrepreneurship: A meta-analysis of entrepreneurship education outcomes. Journal of Business Venturing, 28(2), 211–224; Mincer, J. (1958). Investment in human capital and personal income distribution. Journal of Political Economy, 66, 281–302)]. We operationalize HC to include operators' (1) previous ownership/management experience, (2) level of education, (3) length of time in current position, (4) years spent in hospitality and (5) entrepreneurial qualifications and examine the structural effects on performance. Data were collected through telephone-based surveys of 308 restaurant operators in Australia and France. REBUS results found that the effects of HC on performance differed across identified segments from the data, presenting new insights on the complexity of the relationship and the presence of moderator effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses long‐term trends in intergenerational earnings persistence in France for male cohorts born between 1931 and 1975. This time period has witnessed important changes in the French labour market and educational system, in particular an important compression of earnings differentials as well as a large expansion in access to secondary and higher education. Using a two‐sample instrumental variables approach, I estimate two measures of intergenerational economic persistence: the intergenerational earnings elasticity (IGE) and the intergenerational correlation (IGC). Over the period, the IGE exhibits a V‐shaped pattern. It falls from a high of value of 0.6 for cohorts born in the 1930s to around 0.4 for those born in the 1950s, but subsequently rises to a level close to that at the beginning of the period. In contrast, the IGC remains relatively stable over the period. This suggests that changes in the IGE are partly driven by transitory responses to changes in cross‐sectional inequality rather than long‐term changes in the degree of intergenerational persistence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many localities are able to survive without competitive export industries. The economic base of regional development rests upon various wage and non-wage external incomes. However, suitable regional data are often unavailable, and particularly those related to external consumer spending in urban regions and short-stay tourism. Three geo-localized databases are here combined into a circular-flow template from former consumer spending to the final wage income. By doing so, the paper contributes to identifying ‘transient custom’ as a new inflow driving local development and it provides a first estimate of its magnitude, using the Paris Region as a case study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Breastfeeding is recommended until 6 months of age, but a wide range of infant formula is available for nonbreastfed or partially breastfed infants. Our aim was to describe infant formula selection and to examine social- and health-related factors associated with this selection. Analyses were based on 13,291 infants from the French national birth cohort Etude Longitudinale Française depuis l'Enfance. Infant diet was assessed at Month 2 by phone interview and monthly from Months 3 to 10 via internet/paper questionnaires. Infant formulas were categorized in 6 groups: extensively or partially hydrolysed, regular with or without prebiotics/probiotics, and thickened with or without prebiotics/probiotics. Associations between type of infant formula used at 2 months and family or infant characteristics were assessed by multinomial logistic regressions. At Month 2, 58.1% of formula-fed infants were fed with formula enriched in prebiotics/probiotics, 31.5% with thickened formula, and 1.4% with extensively hydrolysed formula. The proportion of formula-fed infants increased regularly, but the type of infant formula used was fairly stable between 2 and 10 months. At Month 2, extensively hydrolysed formulas were more likely to be used in infants with diarrhoea or regurgitation problems. Partially hydrolysed formulas were more often used in families with high income, with a history of allergy, or with infants with regurgitation issues. Thickened formulas were used more with boys, preterm infants, infants with regurgitation issues, or in cases of early maternal return to work. The main factors related to the selection of infant formula were family and infant health-related ones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Following Bergstrom and Goodman (1973), this paper contributes to the set of studies estimating demand for publicly provided goods and services. The main innovation in this paper is methodological as it uses a Stone–Geary utility function to describe median voter preferences. Unlike in previous studies, the local public expenditure function, in a (simplified) linear expenditure system, can be derived directly from the theoretical framework. The translated expenditure function provides an estimate of the minimum required local public services in each municipality. Using cross-sectional municipal data from France, it is found to be, at the most, 30 per cent of the total per capita expenditure. Compared with the specification conventionally used in the literature, linear and non-linear expenditure systems show a greater sensitivity to price and income variations and reveal a greater number of significant variables. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The paper presents key results regarding a possible reform of the Common Agricultural Policy direct payments, based on a scenario analysis by the CAPRI (Common Agricultural Policy Regionalized Impact) modelling system. Combining aggregate programming models at the NUTS 2 level with a global spatial multi-commodity model, it enables depicting the impacts of different policy and economic scenarios from regional to the global scale. The paper discusses simulated impacts on farm income and agricultural markets from implementing the European flat rate hectare payment corrected for the purchasing power disparities across the Member States while reducing the overall budget outlays for direct payments by 50% and dismantling the remaining coupled support to ruminants. The results are an outcome of a comparative static analysis against a reference scenario which assumes the Health Check policy in 2020. The model results suggest a drop of the agricultural gross value added by 9% at the aggregate EU27 level compared to the reference scenario. Impacts differ between the Member States groups, Member States and regions, depending on the share of premiums in the income from agriculture, specialization and competitiveness of production. The largest reduction is projected for the suckler cow herd, dropping by 6% compared to the reference scenario. The drop is caused by removing the coupled support and affecting mostly the herds in Spain and France. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2021, the federal government of the United States expanded a set of income transfers that led to strong reductions in child poverty. This research note uses microdata from more than 50 countries and U.S. data spanning more than 50 years to place the 2021 child poverty rate in historical and international perspective. We demonstrate that whether using the Supplemental Poverty Measure (SPM), relative poverty measures, or an absolute poverty measure, the U.S. child poverty rate in 2021 was at its lowest level since at least 1967. The U.S. tax and transfer system reduced the 2021 SPM child poverty rate by more than 75% relative to the pre-tax/transfer child poverty rate; this reduction was three times the mean reduction effect between 1967 and 2019. These policy changes improved the country's standing from having a relative poverty rate twice that of Germany's in 2019 to the same as Germany's in 2021. Moreover, the U.S. progressed from reducing child poverty at less than half the rate of Norway in 2019 to a rate comparable to Norway in 2021. However, the U.S. success was temporary: after the expiration of the 2021 income provisions, the child poverty rate doubled and returned to being higher than in most other high-income countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to investigate, from a generational perspective, the effect of human capital on individual earnings and earnings differences in Germany, France and Italy, three developed countries in Western Europe with similarconservativewelfare regimes but with important differences in their education systems. Income inequalitiesbetweenandwithineducation levels are explored using a two-stage probit model with quantile regressions in the second stage. More precisely, drawing upon 2005 EU-SILC data, returns on schooling and experience are estimated separately for employees and self-employed full-time workers by means of Mincerian earnings equations with sample selection; the sample selection correction accounts for the potential individual self-selection into the two labour force types. Although some determinants appear to be relatively similar across countries, state-specific differentials are drawn in light of the institutional features of each national context. The study reveals how each dimension of human capital differently affects individuals’ earnings and earnings inequality and, most of all, how their impacts differ along the conditional earnings distribution and across countries. In the comparative perspective, the country's leading position in terms of the highest rewards on education also depends on which earnings distribution (employee vs. self-employed) is analysed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Background: Our paper investigates the relationship between family income and child health in France. We first examine whether there is a significant correlation between family income and child general health, and the evolution of this relationship across childhood years. We then study the role of specific health problems, access to health care, and supplemental health insurance coverage, in the income gradient in general health. We also quantify the role of income in child anthropometric measurements. Whenever possible, we compare our results for France with those obtained for other developed countries., Methods: Using data on up to approximately 24,000 French children from the Health, Health Care and Insurance Surveys, we apply econometric techniques to quantify the correlation between household income, child general health, specific health problems, anthropometric characteristics, access to health care, and supplemental insurance coverage., Results: There is a positive and significant correlation between family income and child general health in France. The income gradient in child general health is possibly smaller in France than in other developed countries. The gradient in general health is explained by the greater prevalence of specific health problems for low-income children. In addition, income is strongly correlated with anthropometric characteristics. Access to health care, and supplemental health insurance coverage are probably not major determinants of the gradient in general health., Conclusion: The relationship between income and health in adulthood has antecedents in childhood. Improving access to health care services for children from low-income families may not be enough to decrease social health inequalities in childhood.

Background: In many OECD countries, the gender differences in physicians' pay favour male doctors. Due to the feminisation of the doctor profession, it is essential to measure this income gap in the French context of Fee-for-service payment (FFS) and then to precisely identify its determinants. The objective of this study is to measure and analyse the 2008 income gap between males and females general practitioners (GPs). This paper focuses on the role of gender medical practices differentials among GPs working in private practice in the southwest region of France., Methods: Using data from 339 private-practice GPs, we measured an average gender income gap of approximately 26% in favour of men. Using the decomposition method, we examined the factors that could explain gender disparities in income., Results: The analysis showed that 73% of the income gap can be explained by the average differences in doctors' characteristics; for example, 61% of the gender income gap is explained by the gender differences in workload, i.e., number of consultations and visits, which is on average significantly lower for female GPs than for male GPs. Furthermore, the decomposition method allowed us to highlight the differences in the marginal returns of doctors' characteristics and variables contributing to income, such as GP workload; we found that female GPs have a higher marginal return in terms of earnings when performing an additional medical service., Conclusions: The findings of this study help to understand the determinants of the income gap between male and female GPs. Even though workload is clearly an essential determinant of income, FFS does not reduce the gender income gap, and there is an imperfect relationship between the provision of medical services and income. In the context of feminisation, it appears that female GPs receive a lower income but attain higher marginal returns when performing an additional consultation.

In this paper, we study the smoking behavior of students aged from 18 to 25 using four cross-section data sets collected in France from 1997 to 2006. We focus on the role played by student income and parental resources. We find that both the probability of smoking and the number of cigarettes smoked are positively correlated to family resources. Among students, only wages earned and transfers received from parents increase smoking participation. However, sensitivity to income remains weak since a rise of 1% in income of either the students or their parents leads to an increase in smoking prevalence of about 0.15-0.20%., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

How much do citizens value democracy? How willing are they to sacrifice their liberties and voting rights for growth, equality, or other social outcomes? We design a conjoint experiment in nationally representative surveys in Brazil, France, and the United States in which respondents choose between different societies that randomly vary in their economic outcomes (country income, income inequality, social mobility), political outcomes (democracy, public health insurance), and the level of personal income for each respondent. Our research allows us to estimate the respondents' willingness to trade off democracy for individual income (as well as other societal attributes). We find that, on average, individuals are strongly attached to democracy and a robust welfare state. They prefer to live in a country without free democratic elections only if their individual income multiplies by at least three times and in a country without public health insurance only if their individual income more than doubles. After estimating these preferences at the individual level for all respondents, we show that, although there is an authoritarian minority in all three countries, forming a nondemocratic majority (by offering more income and/or other goods to respondents) is very unlikely. Our findings imply that, contrary to a growing discussion about the crisis of democracy, liberal democratic values remain substantially robust in high and middle income democracies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We evaluated people living with Human Immunodeficiency Virus' (PLWH) quality of life (QoL) and assessed whether their demographic, disease-related, socioeconomic, or behavioral characteristics were associated with poorer QoL. ANRS CO3 AQUIVIH-NA cohort participants (Nouvelle Acquitaine, France) were recruited to a cross-sectional study (2018–2020) and their QoL assessed (WHOQOL-BREF). We calculated median (Q1, Q3) QoL domain scores and assessed factors associated with poorer median QoL using bivariable and multivariable quartile regression. Of the 965 PLWH included, 98.4% were on antiretroviral therapy, 94.7% were virally-suppressed, 63.5% reported good/very good QoL. Median scores (0–100) were highest for physical (69;Q1, Q3: 56, 81) and environmental (69; 56, 75) QoL and lowest for social (56; 44, 69) and psychological (56; 44, 69) QoL. PLWH with ≥ 3 comorbidities, HIV-related stigma, or income of < 1500€/month had poorer median adjusted physical, psychological, social, and environmental QoL scores compared to reference groups. While more than half of PLWH reported good/very good QoL, we have not achieved good QoL in 90% of PLWH. Multi-morbidity, HIV-related stigma, and social determinants were consistently and independently associated with poorer QoL. Addressing structural factors in addition to those indirectly related to HIV is required to attain good QoL in all PLWH. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines fertility and labor supply responses to a 2014 French policy reform that consisted of conditioning the amount of child allowances on household income. Employing regression discontinuity design and French administrative income data, I find that restricting family allowance eligibility criteria decreases fertility among the richest households. The results also highlight that receiving half the amount of the allowances or none leads to an increase in both male and female labor supply through an increase in overtime work. The implied change in earned income, due to an increase in weekly working hours, is found to be comparable to the euro value reduction in benefits. Auxiliary regression analyses show that the fertility decline reflects a decrease in the probability of having an additional child for parents rather than in the probability of becoming parents for households without children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Is there a Muslim disadvantage in economic integration for second-generation immigrants to Europe? Previous research has failed to isolate the effect that religion may have on an immigrant family's labor market opportunities because other factors, such as country of origin or race, confound the result. This paper uses a correspondence test in the French labor market to identify and measure this religious effect. The results confirm that in the French labor market, anti-Muslim discrimination exists: a Muslim candidate is 2.5 times less likely to receive a job interview callback than is his or her Christian counterpart. A high-n survey reveals, consistent with expectations from the correspondence test, that second-generation Muslim households in France have lower income compared with matched Christian households. The paper thereby contributes to both substantive debates on the Muslim experience in Europe and methodological debates on how to measure discrimination. Following the National Academy of Sciences' 2001 recommendations on combining a variety of methodologies and applying them to real-world situations, this research identifies, measures, and infers consequences of discrimination based on religious affiliation, controlling for potentially confounding factors, such as race and country of origin.

This paper tests for income-related reporting heterogeneity in self-assessed health (SAH). It also constructs a synthetic measure of clinical health to decompose the effect of income on SAH into an effect on clinical health (which is called a health production effect) and a reporting heterogeneity effect. We find health production effects essentially for low-income individuals, and reporting heterogeneity for the choice between the medium labels, i.e. 'fair' vs 'good' and for high-income individuals. As such, SAH should be used cautiously for the assessment of income-related health inequalities in France. It is however possible to minimize the reporting heterogeneity bias by converting SAH into a binary variable for poor health vs other health statuses., (Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

This paper has contributed to confirming the link between education and health in developed countries. The analysis is based on 11 European Union countries. We estimate country-specific health functions, where the dependent variable is self-reported health status and the education attainment is one of the main inputs. All eight waves (1994–2001) of the European Community Household Panel are deployed. A random effects ordered probit is estimated in order to control, to a given extent, for unobserved heterogeneity. Explanatory variables are both time invariant (education attainment and gender) and time varying (gross wages, hours of work, age and living alone). Results confirm the positive impact of secondary education on health in most cases and tertiary education in all cases, even after controlling for other inputs in the health function and taking unobserved heterogeneity into account. Secondary education has an impact on health in all countries in the sample except for The Netherlands and UK. The effect does not differ between secondary and tertiary education in France, Ireland and Greece. The correlation between education and health is interpreted in different but complementary ways by diverse approaches and we may not disentangle the precise mechanism that connects health with education from our results. Anyway, it seems clear that better coordination is needed between education and health policies to effectively improve health literacy. Other relevant results from our study are that women register poorer health than men, age contributes to worsening health status and wages contribute positively to health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper contributes to the literature on social water policies by clarifying the definition of water affordability and water poverty and by providing the first empirical analysis of water affordability in France. Using quantitative analyses of French household microeconomic surveys, it is shown that 4.31% of households in France (representing around 1.16 million households) were obliged to spend more than 3% of their income on water charges in 2001. The results also demonstrate that single parent families (especially if the head of the household is a woman) or, conversely, large families for which social aid represents a large proportion of total income are the most vulnerable groups in terms of water affordability. The econometric results also suggest that private participation in the water sector has not helped the poor in terms of affordability and that the type of delegation contract matters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses the effect of a reform in the French single parents allowance on the labor supply of single mothers with very young children. The reform aimed at encouraging participation by allowing eligible single parents to accumulate welfare benefits and labor earnings for a limited period of time. The analysis shows that eligible single mothers were significantly more likely to work after the reform. During the same period, the employment rate of married mothers with young children did not experience a significant change, suggesting that at least part of the increase among single mothers was a consequence of the reform. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses the issue of price negotiation between a municipality and a private water utility operator, and its implications for residential water demand estimation. We use appropriate econometric procedures to estimate a water demand equation on a panel of French municipalities. We find evidence that negotiated water price depends on municipality's characteristics, causing endogeneity of price in the demand equation. The impact of average household income, housing, and system features such as metering is investigated both on municipal consumption and price. Estimated price and income elasticities are significant and close to previous household level studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study we consider two panels of wage-earners, from 1974 to 1988, for Italy and France respectively. The international perspective and the availability of micro-data are particularly interesting for they allow us to address individual characteristics as well as national specificities. In the empirical analysis a partitioning of the earnings distribution by deciles is used and the overall hierarchical mobility of individuals is investigated. Transition matrices are corn in order to compare wage formation and mobility processes across countries, in the period under investigation. A rich battery of mobility indices is presented and the relations between them are studied. The paper addresses several different issues and compares the results across countries. First, the evolution of earnings and the relative wage profiles are compared across countries. Second, the heterogeneity issue is addressed and some structural characteristics of the sample are studied, namely: cohort and gender differences in earnings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: We aimed to explore the relationship between socio-economic characteristics and sustainable dietary patterns. Design: Dietary data were derived from a web-based FFQ. Diet sustainability was evaluated using a modified Sustainable Diet Index, comprising nutritional, environmental and cultural components (higher scores expressing higher sustainability). The socio-economic position markers were education, household income and occupation status. Multi-adjusted linear and Poisson regression models were used to assess the cross-sectional association of the markers of socio-economic status with a sustainable diet and sustainability subcomponents, respectively. Setting: France. Participants: 29 119 NutriNet-Santé participants. Results: Individuals with a more sustainable diet had slightly higher diet monetary cost, lower total energy intake and consumed less animal-based foods than their counterparts. Lower education level was associated with lower overall diet sustainability (β primary v. postgraduate = -0·62, 95 % CI (-0·72, −0·51)) and nutrition, socio-cultural and environmental subscores. Manual workers and employees had a lower modified Sustainable Diet Index than intermediate professionals (β manual workers v. intermediate professionals = -0·43, 95 % CI (−0·52, −0·33) and β employees v. intermediate professionals = -0·56, 95 % CI (−0·64, −0·48)). Participants with the lowest v. highest incomes had a higher environmental subscore but a lower socio-cultural subscore, whereas the results were less marked for occupational status. Conclusions: Overall, our results documented associations between socio-economic status and the level of diet sustainability, arguing for the implementation of appropriate food policies to promote sustainable diets at lower cost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The obesity epidemic and inequalities in access to food are prompting increasing numbers of food environment studies, which rely on secondary data sources for mapping. This article assesses the reliability of the two main food outlet data sources in France: the volunteered geographical information (VGI) collaborative map OpenStreetMap (OSM) and the national business register Sirene. Their information on food outlets was assessed through ground‐truthing in the city‐region of Montpellier. Sensitivity, positive predictive value, and concordance were computed for each database. We analyzed the socio‐spatial variability of these measures according to households' income level. The sensitivity of Sirene is good and that of OSM moderate, while the opposite holds for positive predictive value, and the concordance of both OSM and Sirene is fair. Sirene provides more reliable data on deprived neighborhoods and OSM on wealthy neighborhoods. Caution is recommended regarding the classifications on which they are based, the time required to update the institutional database, and socially influenced contributions to VGI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

I provide estimates of compensated elasticities of labour income with respect to the marginal net‐of‐tax rate on the 2006–15 period for France, exploiting not only income tax reforms but also means‐tested benefits reforms. I use semi‐parametric graphical evidence and a classic two‐stage least‐squares estimation applied to a rich data set including both financial and socio‐demographic variables. I obtain an estimated compensated elasticity on the intensive margin around 0.2–0.3 in response to income tax reforms, and around 0.1 in response to in‐work benefit reforms, while I found no statistically significant response to family allowance reforms. I show that the difference between elasticities contradicts the theoretical prediction of the classical labour supply model. These asymmetric responses are very robust to a large number of robustness checks. The most plausible explanation is that income tax reforms are more salient and better perceived than benefit reforms. I also highlight an average compensated elasticity of 0.1 for all transfers on the intensive margin and provide heterogeneous elasticities depending on types of people, which could be used for optimal tax analyses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background The prevalence of overweight and obesity has increased in various countries. Normal weight before pregnancy is important to protect maternal and newborn health. This study aimed to describe the evolution of body mass index (BMI) before pregnancy in France and explore its association with two measures of socioeconomic status (SES), education and household income. Methods Data were from four national perinatal surveys in France in 1998, 2003, 2010 and 2016 to describe the time evolution of maternal BMI. We explored the links between BMI and women's characteristics in the most recent period (2010–2016 surveys) since income information was not available before. Risk ratios (RRs) of underweight, overweight and obesity for each measure of SES were computed by using multivariable Poisson regression models. Results Overweight and obesity prevalence increased between 1998 and 2016, from 6% to 12% for obesity. Both were inversely associated with SES (higher prevalence among least educated and poorest women), with strong variations for each social indicator, even in multivariable analyses including both. Combining education and income revealed a wide gradient; RR for obesity was 6.01 (95% confidence interval 4.89–7.38) with low education and income <2000 euros/month vs. high education and income ≥4000 euros/month. Conclusions Public policies must implement programs to limit the increase in overweight and its unequal distribution in the population, alongside other policies to address the societal determinants of the obesogenic environment. Health professionals need to advise women to improve their eating and physical activity to limit weight gain from childhood to early adulthood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Abstract: There is a growing tendency to see cohabitation as an equivalent alternative to marriage, and this article investigates how different these two unions are for a woman''s financial satisfaction and income sharing in Denmark, France and Great Britain. The analysis suggests that a woman''s financial satisfaction decreases with cohabitation as opposed to marriage due perhaps to the lack of income pooling of cohabiters. The paper however finds substantial heterogeneity among married couples; the difference between marriage and cohabitation is not only a result of the legal protection obtained by the marriage contract but is better explained by the level of relationship investment in marriage in terms of its duration. The systematic comparison of the three institutional frameworks points out that Denmark, as the country where marriage and cohabitation are most equated by law, is surprisingly the country where the relative difference between marriage and cohabitation for a woman''s financial satisfaction is the greatest. No relative variation in results is observed between Great Britain and France. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper analyses the evolution of the French pension system from the mid-nineteenth century to the current period. Competing or complementary hypotheses that can explain the long-run rise in pension expenditure are discussed. The determinants that appear to offer the best explanation for the evolution of pension expenditure are economic growth, the process of industrialization and ageing. The time series related to these determinants are cointegrated over the long run. A multivariate model is estimated in order to assess the long-run elasticities between the pension expenditure and its main determinants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]