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Background: Highly effective hepatitis C therapies are available in Australia. However, people living with hepatitis C face various barriers to accessing care and treatment. Aims: To identify gaps in the cascade of care for hepatitis C and generate estimates of the number living with untreated infection according to population group, using a representative longitudinal study population. Methods: We linked hepatitis C notification data from Victoria to national pathology, prescribing and death registry data. We assessed receipt of key clinical services in a large cohort who tested positive for hepatitis C from 1 January 2000 to 31 December 2016, with follow‐up to 30 June 2018. We estimated the number still living with hepatitis C, adjusting for spontaneous clearance and mortality. Results: The cohort comprised 45 391 people positive for hepatitis C. Of these, 13 346 (29%) received treatment and an estimated 28% (95% confidence interval (CI): 26–30%) were still living with chronic infection at 30 June 2018, with the remainder still living following spontaneous clearance (30%, 95% CI: 29–32%) or having died (12%, 95% CI: 12–12%). Half (50%) of those still living with hepatitis C were born from 1965 to 1980, and 74% first tested positive before 2011. Conclusions: Despite an enabling policy environment and subsidised therapy, many people in this cohort were not treated. Increased measures may be needed to engage people in care, including those who acquired hepatitis C more than 10 years ago. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aim: This study aimed to assess utilization of health‐care services in people with decompensated cirrhosis (DC) or hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and a "late diagnosis" of hepatitis B or hepatitis C. Methods: Hepatitis B and C cases during 1997–2016 in Victoria, Australia, were linked with hospitalizations, deaths, liver cancer diagnoses, and medical services. A late diagnosis was defined as hepatitis B or hepatitis C notification occurring after, at the same time, or within 2 years preceding an HCC/DC diagnosis. Services provided during the 10‐year period before HCC/DC diagnosis were assessed, including general practitioner (GP) or specialist visits, emergency department presentations, hospital admissions, and blood tests. Results: Of the 25 766 notified cases of hepatitis B, 751 (2.9%) were diagnosed with HCC/DC, and hepatitis B was diagnosed late in 385 (51.3%). Of 44 317 cases of hepatitis C, 2576 (5.8%) were diagnosed with HCC/DC, and hepatitis C was diagnosed late in 857 (33.3%). Although late diagnosis dropped over time, missed opportunities for timely diagnosis were observed. Most people diagnosed late had visited a GP (97.4% for hepatitis B, 98.9% for hepatitis C) or had a blood test (90.9% for hepatitis B, 88.6% for hepatitis C) during the 10 years before HCC/DC diagnosis. The median number of GP visits was 24 and 32, and blood tests 7 and 8, for hepatitis B and C, respectively. Conclusions: Late diagnosis of viral hepatitis remains a concern, with the majority having frequent health‐care service provision in the preceding period, indicating missed opportunities for diagnosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To assess associations between SARS‐CoV‐2 infection and the incidence of hospitalisation with selected respiratory and non‐respiratory conditions in a largely SARS‐CoV‐2 vaccine‐naïve population. Design, setting, participants: Self‐control case series; analysis of population‐wide surveillance and administrative data for all laboratory‐confirmed COVID‐19 cases notified to the Victorian Department of Health (onset, 23 January 2020 – 31 May 2021; ie, prior to widespread vaccination rollout) and linked hospital admissions data (admission dates to 30 September 2021). Main outcome measures: Hospitalisation of people with acute COVID‐19; incidence rate ratios (IRRs) comparing incidence of hospitalisations with defined conditions (including cardiac, cerebrovascular, venous thrombo‐embolic, coagulative, and renal disorders) from three days before to within 89 days of onset of COVID‐19 with incidence during baseline period (60–365 days prior to COVID‐19 onset). Results: A total of 20 594 COVID‐19 cases were notified; 2992 people (14.5%) were hospitalised with COVID‐19. The incidence of hospitalisation within 89 days of onset of COVID‐19 was higher than during the baseline period for several conditions, including myocarditis and pericarditis (IRR, 14.8; 95% CI, 3.2–68.3), thrombocytopenia (IRR, 7.4; 95% CI, 4.4–12.5), pulmonary embolism (IRR, 6.4; 95% CI, 3.6–11.4), acute myocardial infarction (IRR, 3.9; 95% CI, 2.6–5.8), and cerebral infarction (IRR, 2.3; 95% CI, 1.4–3.9). Conclusion: SARS‐CoV‐2 infection is associated with higher incidence of hospitalisation with several respiratory and non‐respiratory conditions. Our findings reinforce the value of COVID‐19 mitigation measures such as vaccination, and awareness of these associations should assist the clinical management of people with histories of SARS‐CoV‐2 infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

People living in Australia on temporary student or work visas are excluded from Medicare access and can face barriers to adequate healthcare, even if they are privately insured. This analysis aimed to quantify this issue in relation to people living with chronic hepatitis B, the majority of whom in Australia were born overseas. The data suggest that an estimated 25 000 people living with chronic hepatitis B in Australia are ineligible for Medicare, 10% of the total number affected, with considerable potential impact in access to effective healthcare and prevention of adverse outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Viral hepatitis affects more than 320 million people globally, leading to significant morbidity and mortality due to liver failure and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). More than 248 million people (3.2% globally) are chronically infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV), and an estimated 80 million people (1.1% globally) are chronically infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV). In 2015, more than 700 000 deaths were directly attributable to HBV, and nearly 500 000 deaths were attributable to HCV infection; 2–5% of HBV‐infected people develop HCC per annum irrespective of the presence of cirrhosis, whereas 1–5% HCV‐infected people with advanced fibrosis develop HCC per annum. The rapidly escalating global mortality related to HBV and HCV related viral hepatitis to be the 7th leading cause of death worldwide in 2013, from 10th leading cause in 1990. Australia, New Zealand, and Pacific Island Countries and Territories fall within the World Health Organization Western Pacific Region, which has a high prevalence of viral hepatitis and related morbidity, particularly HBV. Remarkably, in this region, HBV‐related mortality is greater than for tuberculosis, HIV infection, and malaria combined. The region provides a unique contrast in viral hepatitis prevalence, health system resources, and approaches taken to achieve World Health Organization global elimination targets for HBV and HCV infection. This review highlights the latest evidence in viral hepatitis epidemiology and explores the health resources available to combat viral hepatitis, focusing on the major challenges and critical needs to achieve elimination in Australia, New Zealand, and Pacific Island Countries and Territories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The incidence and trends of the hepatitis D virus (HDV) in Australia have not been recently assessed, and the circulating genotypes have never been determined. Aim: To characterise the current virology and epidemiology of HDV. Methods: Notifiable disease surveillance and laboratory testing data were analysed to assess demographics, risk factors and trends. HDV serology and RNA testing were performed on requested samples from 2010 to 2016. Sequencing of a 500‐nucleotide amplicon of the delta antigen and phylogenetic analysis of the strains from 2009 to 2016 were also conducted. Results: Ninety HDV notifications were reported to the Victorian Department of Health and Human Services between 2010 and 2016. The majority (64.4%) of those diagnosed were born overseas, most commonly in Sudan, Pakistan and Vietnam. Over the same period, 190 patients tested positive for anti‐HDV serology and 166 for HDV RNA. Sequencing of isolates from 169 individuals between 2009 and 2016 found that 80.5% strains were genotype 1, 16% genotype 5 and 3.5% genotype 2. Phylogenetic analysis confirmed the relatedness of strains from birth country, demonstrated the presence of the 'Pacific Island' genotype 1 strain in Queensland and supported possible transmission in correctional facilities and within families. Conclusions: This study demonstrates the ongoing need for routine HDV screening and engagement in clinical care for people living with HBV in Australia. Epidemiological findings highlight the diversity in those affected and provide insights into local and global geographic distribution and transmission patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Background: Liver cancer continues to be a health priority in Australia, with the majority attributable to preventable causes, and certain populations at higher risk. Aims: Epidemiological assessment of incidence, trends and distribution to inform prevention, and reassessment of data in light of recent changes to registry case definitions. Methods: Reported cases of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in Victoria, Australia, 1984–2013, were obtained from the Victorian Cancer Registry. Demographic characteristics were examined, incidence and survival assessed using Poisson and Cox regression, and geographic distribution mapped. Incidence was compared before and after inclusion of non‐histologically confirmed cases in Registry data to assess impacts on incidence trends. Results: Diagnoses of HCC rose substantially between 1984 and 2013, increasing sixfold from 0.9 to 5.9 per 100 000. The rate of increase per year accelerated from 5.3% between 1984 and 2003 to 9.5% between 2004 and 2013. Cases were disproportionately male (80%), median age at diagnosis was 66 years and 53% were born overseas. Even during 2004–2013, 5‐year survival was only 16%, although higher among younger people, metropolitan residents and people born overseas. Incidence showed strong geographic clustering. The proportion of cases diagnosed clinically increased from 1% during 1984–2004 to 43% in 2009–2013. The revised case definition added 993 cases (27.3% of total). Conclusion: Cases of HCC are becoming increasingly common, and revised incidence estimates highlight the impact of case definitions in the context of changing diagnostic approaches. The ongoing burden, disproportionate population distribution and low survival emphasise the importance of prevention and early detection as a public health imperative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Indigenous populations globally are disproportionately affected by chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection however contemporary sero-prevalence data are often absent. In the Indigenous population of the Northern Territory (NT) of Australia the unique C4 sub-genotype of HBV universally circulates. There are no studies of the sero-prevalence, nor the impact of the vaccination program (which has a serotype mismatch compared to C4), at a population-wide level. Methods: We examined all available HBV serology results obtained from the three main laboratories serving NT residents between 1991 and 2011. Data were linked with a NT government database to determine Indigenous status and the most recent test results for each individual were extracted as a cross-sectional database including 88,112 unique individuals. The primary aim was to obtain a contemporary estimate of HBsAg positivity for the NT by Indigenous status. Results: Based on all tests from 2007–2011 (35,633 individuals), hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) positivity was 3·40% (95%CI 3·19–3·61), being higher in Indigenous (6·08%[5·65%-6·53%]) than non-Indigenous (1·56%[1·38%-1·76%]) Australians, p<0·0001. Birth cohort analysis showed HBsAg positivity fell over time for Indigenous people, with this decrease commencing prior to universal infant vaccination (which commenced in 1990), with an ongoing but slower rate of decline since 1990, (0·23% decrease per year versus 0·17%). Conclusions: HBsAg positivity is high in the NT, particularly in the Indigenous population. HBsAg positivity has fallen over time but a substantial part of this decrease is due to factors other than the universal vaccination program. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A letter to the editor about the epidemiology of tuberculosis in Australia is presented.