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Forced migration as a reaction to National Socialism represents individual as well as simultaneously collective, transnational, and global experiences. Not only identity-forming categories but also forms of knowledge are profoundly reshaped by processes of displacement and resettlement. The paper argues that the biography of the archaeologist Grete Mostny (1914–91) offers an exemplary case study of such processes of adaptation on individual, collective, and academic levels. Due to her escape from Austria to Chile as a persecuted Jew in 1938/39, Mostny's identity as a white European (female) scholar attained a whole new significance and became the door opener for her interdisciplinary career at the interface of archaeology and anthropology in her new homeland. Her research in Chile was a product of a global event—namely mass forced emigration from Europe—as well as of factors on the micro level, such as her European descent and her academic education, which gave her certain privileges in her new environment. When Mostny arrived in Chile in 1939, a new European and U.S. hegemony had already begun to dominate academia in the country, which was trying to modernise itself and move from the academic periphery closer to the centre. Mostny, the once racially persecuted scholar, fit well in this process by making use of her “European” knowledge and her networks. In 1954 she received international attention when she put together a pioneering interdisciplinary research team to study El Niño del Cerro El Plomo, a four-hundred-year-old Inca mummy found in the Andes five thousand metres above sea level. Nationally, Mostny's study contributed, beyond all measure, to the Andean state's identity, as it re-evaluated and enhanced Chile's prehistory. In a time of political and social tensions in Chile, the rediscovery of its Indigenous prehistory—even by a foreign white scholar—helped to overcome the old shadows of colonial historical research, perhaps because in the immediate present the Indigenous movement in Chile offered little potential for consensus. This article uses Mostny's transnational biography as a lens through which to detect these connected histories and entangled hegemonies in the fields of anthropology and archaeology, which have become instrumental in the formation of Chile's national identity. Moreover, the paper shows that the category of race played a central role in the field of knowledge production and career development, not only for Grete Mostny.

The history of healthcare in Latin American countries can be traced back to colonial times and, in some cases, to the traditional herbal medicine practices of indigenous peoples. However, it was not until the formation of nation-states in the early 19th century that national health systems were established. In general, the origins of health institutions in these countries were similar, beginning with the establishment of local or regional/federal health offices or councils tasked with addressing public hygiene issues. From the 1930s until the mid-20th century, the main modern health institutions with curative objectives and national scope were established. This period marked the beginning of the construction of Latin American national health systems. There was a certain degree of consensus in the initial development of these models, which sought to coordinate territorial services and expand infrastructure to increase access. In a second phase, significant changes occurred in the 1980s and 1990s, influenced by recommendations from international organizations such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. The Alma Ata Declaration of 1978 called on governments to strengthen primary healthcare with a focus on universal access. A decade later, World Bank documents (1987, 1993) related to financing and organization of healthcare systems were instrumental in the implementation of structural reforms, as will be further discussed. At times, national health institutions temporarily acquired greater significance and power, particularly during periods of epidemics. However, for the most part, their operations remained largely local and lacked coordination at the national level. Over time, however, these institutions gained increasing importance. Local councils and offices were elevated to national level and eventually transformed into Secretariats or Directorates linked to the state's public apparatus. This paper briefly presents the development of healthcare models in the region and subsequently conducts a comparative analysis of their respective reforms.

Objective/Context: This paper studies the role of the Chilean state during the great drought of 1967-1969 as a mediator between human beings and nature. Institutional adaptations and the effort to improve the infrastructure were elements of continuity with respect to previous droughts, but there were novelties as well, such as attempts to pursue weather modification and the artificial melting of glaciers. The support of technologies and scientists operating from peripheral state institutions was essential for these purposes. All the above took place in the context of the Cold War when the predominant environmental imaginaries made human intervention look favorable and necessary for the modernization of countries. Methodology: Diverse primary sources were used, such as ministerial documents, decrees, bulletins, and reports of different state institutions that allowed understanding the logic of state management during the water crisis. Similarly, research in national and international press helped identify how imaginaries about the environment were expressed and disseminated publicly, which tended to validate novel efforts to control nature. Originality: This is an original study for Latin America, which addresses the early appearance of science and technology in the efforts of what today would be known as geoengineering: mainly through the observation of new actors, which expanded the traditional forms of mediation between humans and nature, led by the state, concerning climate crises. Conclusions: In the 1960s, optimism grew for the human capacity to control and manipulate water resources by appealing to ways other than those previously known, associated with infrastructure development. Expert knowledge was placed at the service of peripheral institutions of the state to promote these changes with lasting consequences. The human desire to control nature at all costs was validated, which helps explain the temporal projection of experiments with artificial rain and glacier control to the present day in Chile. Objetivo/Contexto: en el artículo se estudia el papel del estado chileno en la gran sequía de 1967-1969, como mediador entre los seres humanos y naturaleza. Las adaptaciones institucionales y el esfuerzo por mejorar la infraestructura fueron elementos de continuidad con respecto a sequías anteriores, pero hubo novedades, como los intentos por modificar el tiempo atmosférico y el derretimiento artificial de glaciares con el apoyo de tecnologías y científicos que operaron desde instituciones periféricas del Estado. Todo lo anterior se dio en el contexto de la Guerra Fría, cuando los imaginarios ambientales predominantes hacían ver la intervención humana como algo favorable y necesario para la modernización de los países. Metodología: se recurre a distintos tipos de fuentes primarias como documentos ministeriales, decretos, boletines e informes de distintas instituciones estatales que permiten comprender las lógicas del manejo estatal de la crisis hídrica. Junto con ello, se privilegió el uso de prensa nacional e internacional, para comprender cómo se expresaron y difundieron imaginarios sobre el medioambiente que tendieron a validar los novedosos esfuerzos por controlar la naturaleza. Originalidad: se trata de un estudio original para América Latina, que aborda la temprana aparición de la ciencia y tecnología en esfuerzos propios de lo que hoy se conoce como geoingeniería: en especial por la observación de nuevos actores, que ampliaron las formas tradicionales de mediación entre seres humanos y naturaleza, protagonizadas por el Estado a propósito de crisis climáticas. Conclusiones: en la década de 1960 creció el optimismo por la capacidad humana para controlar y manipular recursos hídricos apelando a formas distintas de las conocidas hasta entonces, asociadas al desarrollo de infraestructura. El conocimiento experto se puso al servicio de instituciones periféricas del Estado, desde donde se impulsaron estos cambios con consecuencias duraderas. Se validó el afán humano por controlar la naturaleza a toda costa, lo que ayuda a explicar la proyección temporal de experimentos con lluvia artificial y control de glaciares hasta nuestros días en Chile. Objetivo/contexto: neste artigo, é estudado o papel do Estado chileno na grande seca de 1967-1969, como mediador entre os seres humanos e a natureza. As adaptações institucionais e o esforço para melhorar a infraestrutura foram elementos de continuidade em comparação a secas anteriores, mas houve novidades, como as tentativas para modificar o tempo atmosférico e o derretimento artificial de glaciares com o apoio de tecnologias e cientistas que operaram de instituições periféricas do Estado. Tudo isso ocorreu no contexto da Guerra Fria, quando os imaginários ambientais predominantes faziam ver a intervenção humana como algo favorável e necessário para modernizar os países. Metodologia: recorre-se a diferentes fontes primárias, como documentos ministeriais, decretos, boletins e relatórios de diversas instituições estatais que permitem compreender as lógicas da gestão estatal da crise hídrica. Além disso, foi privilegiado o uso da imprensa nacional e internacional para compreender como foram expressos e difundidos imaginários sobre o meio ambiente que tenderam a validar os novos esforços para controlar a natureza. Originalidade: trata-se de um estudo original para a América Latina, que aborda o precoce surgimento da ciência e da tecnologia em esforços próprios do que hoje é conhecido como geoengenharia: em especial pela observação de novos atores que ampliaram as formas tradicionais de mediação entre seres humanos e natureza, protagonizadas pelo Estado devido a crises climáticas. Conclusões: na década de 1960, cresceu o otimismo pela capacidade humana para controlar e manipular recursos hídricos apelando a formas diferentes das conhecidas até então, associadas ao desenvolvimento da infraestrutura. O conhecimento especializado se colocou a serviço de instituições periféricas do Estado, a partir de onde foram impulsionadas mudanças com consequências duradouras. Foi validado o anseio humano por controlar a natureza a todo custo, o que ajuda a explicar a projeção temporal de experiências com chuva artificial e controle de glaciares até os nossos dias no Chile.

This paper analyzes the role of the Caja de Crédito Agrario (CCA) in the development of the agricultural credit market in post-depression Chile. Employing its official annual reports, reports from the Superintendency of Banks, and Chile’s Statistical Yearbooks, we constructed the first series of CCA’s credit operations, and established trends in the number, the average amount, and the social, geographic, and specific economic activity distribution of all loans. From 1927 to 1952, CCA loans represented 11.5% of all commercial bank loans, and in the latter year the CCA lent more money to agriculture than any other bank. The CCA became Chile’s largest agricultural bank, right before being merged with other institutions to create the State Bank of Chile. The CCA’s credit was decentralized: its operations evolved towards a fairly balanced distribution of loans among Chile’s main agricultural provinces. This was a micro-credit institution that allocated the vast majority of its loans to small farmers, who otherwise would not have access to formal credit. The CCA was a public policy tool for helping small farmers produce food for domestic consumption. Contrary to conventional views, in Chile the industrialization-promoting state did also foster agricultural growth through CCA public credit. Este trabajo analiza el papel de la Caja de Crédito Agrario (CCA) en el desarrollo del mercado de crédito agrícola en Chile después de la Gran Depresión. Empleando sus memorias anuales, los reportes de la Superintendencia de Bancos y el anuario estadístico de la República de Chile, construimos la primera serie de operaciones de la CCA y establecemos las tendencias en el número, valor promedio, y la distribución social, geográfica y por actividad económica específica de todos los préstamos. Desde 1927 a 1952, los préstamos de la CCA representaron el 11,5% de los préstamos de los bancos comerciales, y en ese último año prestó a la agricultura más dinero que cualquier otro banco. La CCA se convirtió en el principal banco agrícola de Chile, justo antes de ser fusionado con otras instituciones para formar el Banco del Estado de Chile. El crédito de la CCA estaba descentralizado: sus operaciones evolucionaron hacia una equilibrada distribución de los préstamos entre las principales provincias agrícolas de Chile. Esta fue una institución de microcrédito que asignó la vasta mayoría de sus préstamos a pequeños agricultores, quienes de lo contrario no habrían tenido acceso al crédito formal. La CCA fue un instrumento de política pública para ayudar a pequeños agricultores a producir alimentos para el mercado interno. Al contrario de nociones convencionales, en Chile el Estado promotor de la industrialización también fomentó el crecimiento agrícola a través del crédito público de la CCA.