Search

Reactor pressure vessel (RPV) steels are highly susceptible to irradiation embrittlement due to prolonged exposure to high temperature, high pressure, and intense neutron irradiation. This leads to the shift in nil-ductility transition reference temperature—∆RTNDT. The change in ∆RTNDT follows a certain distribution pattern and is impacted by factors including chemical composition, neutron fluence, and irradiation temperature. Existing empirical procedures can estimate ∆RTNDT based on fitting extensive irradiation embrittlement data, but their reliability has not been thoroughly investigated. Probability statistical distributions and the Gamma stochastic process were performed to model material property degradation in RPV steels from a pressurized water reactor due to irradiation embrittlement, with the probability models considered being normal, Weibull, and lognormal distributions. Comparisons with existing empirical procedures showed that the Weibull distribution model and the Gamma stochastic model demonstrate good reliability in predicting ∆RTNDT for RPV steels. This provides a valuable reference for studying irradiation embrittlement in RPV materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The brittle–ductile transition temperature (BDTT) and fracture toughness are useful indicators of the brittleness of reactor pressure vessel materials. However, current methods to analyze these parameters are expensive and time-consuming; moreover, the relevant mechanism is not very clear. Thus, in this study, a body-centered cubic crystal plasticity finite element model (CPFEM) based on the densities of dislocation and irradiation defects, which are full- and partial-absorption dislocation loops, was numerically implemented on A508-3 steel. Irradiation embrittlement was investigated in the CPFEM framework. The cleavage failure model for a representative volume element was proposed to calculate the BDTT, the results of which agreed well with experimental results in the literature for both unirradiated and irradiated samples. The risk for brittle failure is higher for irradiated samples at constant temperature. Furthermore, the proposed model combined with the Beremin cleavage fracture local approach, could estimate the fracture toughness of A508-3 steel at different temperatures before and after irradiation. The results obtained were consistent with reported experimental data, indicating that irradiation exacerbates the embrittlement. This work is beneficial to the calculation and evaluation of irradiation effect of RPV steel, providing reference for the research of reactor life extension. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A sophisticated Bayesian multilevel model for estimating group bias was developed to improve the utility of the ASTM E900-15 embrittlement trend curve (ETC) to assess the conditions of nuclear power plants (NPPs). For multilevel model development, the Baseline 22 surveillance dataset was basically classified into groups based on the NPP name, product form, and notch orientation. By including the notch direction in the grouping criteria, the developed model could account for TTS differences among NPP groups with different notch orientations, which have not been considered in previous ETCs. The parameters of the multilevel model and biases of the NPP groups were calculated using the Markov Chain Monte Carlo method. As the number of data points within a group increased, the group bias approached the mean residual, resulting in reduced credible intervals of the mean, and vice versa. Even when the number of surveillance test data points was less than three, the multilevel model could estimate appropriate biases without overfitting. The model also allowed for a quantitative estimate of the changes in the bias and prediction interval that occurred as a result of adding more surveillance test data. The biases estimated through the multilevel model significantly improved the performance of E900-15.

Reactor pressure vessel (RPV) steels are highly susceptible to irradiation embrittlement due to prolonged exposure to high temperature, high pressure, and intense neutron irradiation. This leads to the shift in nil-ductility transition reference temperature—∆RTNDT. The change in ∆RTNDT follows a certain distribution pattern and is impacted by factors including chemical composition, neutron fluence, and irradiation temperature. Existing empirical procedures can estimate ∆RTNDT based on fitting extensive irradiation embrittlement data, but their reliability has not been thoroughly investigated. Probability statistical distributions and the Gamma stochastic process were performed to model material property degradation in RPV steels from a pressurized water reactor due to irradiation embrittlement, with the probability models considered being normal, Weibull, and lognormal distributions. Comparisons with existing empirical procedures showed that the Weibull distribution model and the Gamma stochastic model demonstrate good reliability in predicting ∆RTNDT for RPV steels. This provides a valuable reference for studying irradiation embrittlement in RPV materials.

Most WWER-440 reactors are operated over the planned operational lifetime of 30 years. Now, the owners/operators are preparing for the second phase of extending the operation. The paper presents an overview of the most important aspects of ageing of the main components of the WWER-440-type reactors based on the operational and ageing management experiences and primary research efforts supporting the operation. The paper aims to demonstrate that the expectations for the operability of these reactors for up to 60–70 years are realistic. The scope of the review is limited to the ageing of the reactor pressure vessel, vessel internals, and steam generator, which are the lifetime-limiting components besides the containment structure. Some of the corrective actions, improvements of in-service inspections, maintenance, and ageing management are also considered in the paper. It is shown that the selection of materials and unavoidable material degradation processes do not limit the operation of the WWER-440 reactors for up to 60–70 years under the established operational environment and ageing management practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

LT21 a type of aluminum alloy used for the irradiation channel of the first heavy water research reactor (HWRR) in China. Studying the mechanical property of irradiated LT21 aluminum under actual service conditions is essential for evaluating its application property. In this paper, tensile specimens of irradiated LT21 were manufactured from the decommissioned irradiation channel of an HWRR; then, tensile tests were carried out, and then the fracture surfaces were observed. The effect of neutron irradiation on tensile behavior and the failure mechanism was analyzed by comparing the result of irradiated and unirradiated LT21 specimens. The results show that, with the thermal neutron flux increasing to 2.38 × 1022 n/cm2, the YS gradually increased from the initial 158 MPa to 251 MPa, the UTS increased from 262 MPa to 321 MPa, and the elongation decreased from 28.8% to about 14.3%; the brittle fracture of the LT21 specimen appeared after irradiation, and the proportion of brittle fracture increased as the neutron fluence increased; the nanophase structures, with a size of less than 50 nm, were precipitated in the LT21 aluminum alloy after neutron irradiation. Transmutation Si is presumed to be the main cause of the radiation effect mechanism of LT21. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of prediction model on irradiation embitterment (PMIE) of reactor pressure vessel (RPV) is an important method for nuclear reactor long term operation. Based on the physical mechanism of RPV irradiation embrittlement, a preliminary model is determined and the critical threshold of Cu content of 0.072% is obtained according to this preliminary model. Then a prediction model named PMIE-2020 for low Cu RPV steels is developed. At last the residual, standard deviation and predicted values and test values distribution analysis are given. Simultaneously, a comparison between PMIE-2020 and other prediction model and irradiation data is provided. Results indicate that the predicted results of PMIE-2020 has no tendency with influence factors such as neutron fluence, flux, irradiation temperature, chemical elements Cu, P, Mn, Ni, Si. The residual standard deviation is 10.76 °C, which is lower than present prediction model. The distribution between predicted values of PMIE-2020 and test values are located the area near the 45° line. These results prove that the PMIE-2020 have high accuracy on irradiation embrittlement prediction.

In the structural integrity assessment of an embrittled reactor pressure vessel (RPV) based on probabilistic fracture mechanics (PFM), it is crucial to consider both of the mean value and the uncertainty of the embrittlement prediction. Typically, the embrittlement prediction uncertainty is given by a normal distribution, and its standard deviation is determined from the residuals of the measured and predicted values of all data used to develop the embrittlement prediction method. Therefore, the same uncertainty is assumed regardless of neutron fluence and the available data. To overcome this issue, the Japan Atomic Energy Agency recently developed the embrittlement prediction method based on machine learning and Bayesian statistics, i.e., the Bayesian nonparametric (BNP) method, and introduced it to the PFM analysis code. The BNP method can predict the probability distribution according to data scarcity and provide more reasonable uncertainty because it estimates significant uncertainties where the scatter of actual measured data is large and the number of data is small. In this study, PFM analysis for a Japanese model RPV in a pressurized water reactor is conducted using the PFM analysis of structural components in aging light water reactors, where the embrittlement probability distribution calculated using the BNP method is used. Furthermore, the effects of different embrittlement prediction methods and uncertainties on the failure frequency of RPVs are investigated in the PFM analyses, and the results are presented. • Embrittlement prediction based on machine learning was applied to probabilistic fracture mechanics analysis. • The probability distribution of superposition of normal distributions according to the number and variation of the data was used. • The effect of different embrittlement prediction methods and uncertainties on the failure frequency of RPVs was investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the concerted effort to identify materials capable of surviving the adverse environment of a fusion reactor interior, tungsten heavy alloys have been put forth as candidates. Experimental trials and behavioral studies have yielded positive results for their adoption by taking advantage of the alloy's unique balance of high fracture toughness and high tungsten content; yet due to their relative novelty in the fusion community, there remains a lack of understanding on the response of these materials to the extended high temperature irradiation environment of the reactor interior. To alleviate this issue and provide the necessary data on the behavior of tungsten heavy alloys to the simulated fusion environment, a 90W-7Ni-3Fe alloy has been subjected to elevated temperature sequential Ni+ and He+ ion irradiations to mimic the expected displacement damage and He gas production expected after five years of service as materials for plasma facing components. Atomic-scale structural analyses and nanoscale chemical mapping have identified the formation of two distinct precipitation structures, a surface localized η-carbide and a hexagonal W 2 C type tungsten carbide, both of which appear to originate at the bi-phase interface between W and the ductile phase. This irradiation enhanced and induced precipitate formation respectively is anticipated to adversely affect these materials by selective embrittlement at bi-phase interfaces leading to a reduction in the material's overall fracture toughness during prolonged high temperature irradiation. It is asserted that any potential exposure to C during fusion reactor operational service should be minimized as to prevent the formation of these phases. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, machine learning (ML) techniques were used to model surveillance test data of nuclear power plants from an international database of the ASTM E10.02 committee. Regression modeling was conducted using various techniques, including Cubist, XGBoost, and a support vector machine. The root mean square deviation of each ML model for the baseline dataset was less than that of the ASTM E900-15 nonlinear regression model. With respect to the interpolation, the ML methods provided excellent predictions with relatively few computations when applied to the given data range. The effect of the explanatory variables on the transition temperature shift (TTS) for the ML methods was analyzed, and the trends were slightly different from those for the ASTM E900-15 model. ML methods showed some weakness in the extrapolation of the fluence in comparison to the ASTM E900-15, while the Cubist method achieved an extrapolation to a certain extent. To achieve a more reliable prediction of the TTS, it was confirmed that advanced techniques should be considered for extrapolation when applying ML modeling.

The prediction of irradiation-induced transition temperature shift for RPV steels is an important method for long term operation of nuclear power plant. Based on the irradiation embrittlement data, an irradiation-induced transition temperature shift prediction model is developed with machine learning method XGBoost. Then the residual, standard deviation and predicted value vs. measured value analysis are conducted to analyze the accuracy of this model. At last, Cu content threshold and saturation values analysis, temperature dependence, Ni/Cu dependence and flux effect are given to verify the reliability. Those results show that the prediction model developed with XGBoost has high accuracy for predicting the irradiation embrittlement trend of RPV steel. The prediction results are consistent with the current understanding of RPV embrittlement mechanism.

Most WWER-440 reactors are operated over the planned operational lifetime of 30 years. Now, the owners/operators are preparing for the second phase of extending the operation. The paper presents an overview of the most important aspects of ageing of the main components of the WWER-440-type reactors based on the operational and ageing management experiences and primary research efforts supporting the operation. The paper aims to demonstrate that the expectations for the operability of these reactors for up to 60–70 years are realistic. The scope of the review is limited to the ageing of the reactor pressure vessel, vessel internals, and steam generator, which are the lifetime-limiting components besides the containment structure. Some of the corrective actions, improvements of in-service inspections, maintenance, and ageing management are also considered in the paper. It is shown that the selection of materials and unavoidable material degradation processes do not limit the operation of the WWER-440 reactors for up to 60–70 years under the established operational environment and ageing management practice.

The aim of this work is to present a new analytical model to evaluate jointly the mechanical integrity and the fitness-for-service of nuclear reactor pressure-vessels steels. This new methodology integrates a robust and regulated irradiation embrittlement prediction model such as the ASTM E-900 with the ASME Fitness-for-Service code used widely in other demanding industries, such as oil and gas, to evaluate, among others, the risk of experiencing degradation mechanisms such as the brittle fracture (generated, in this case, due to the irradiation embrittlement). This multicriteria analytical model, which is based on a new formulation of the brittle fracture criterion, allows an adequate prediction of the irradiation effect on the fracture toughness of reactor pressure-vessel steels, letting us jointly evaluate the mechanical integrity and the fitness-for-service of the vessel by using standardized limit conditions. This allows making decisions during the design, manufacturing and in-service of reactor pressure vessels. The results obtained by the application of the methodology are coherent with several historical experimental works. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Existing elastic analysis methods cannot be adhered to in order to assess the structural integrity of a reactor vessel and internals for a beyond design basis earthquake. Elasto-plastic analysis methods are required, and the factors that affect the elasto-plastic behavior of reactor materials should be taken into account. In this study, a material behavior model was developed that considers the irradiation embrittlement effect, which affects the elasto-plastic behavior of the reactor material. This was used to perform the elasto-plastic time history analyses of the reactor vessel and its internals for beyond design basis earthquake. For this investigation, appropriate beyond design basis earthquakes and reliable finite element models were used. Based on the analysis results, consideration was given to the load reduction effect and the margin change. These were transferred to the internals due to the plastic deformation of the reactor vessel.

The fitness for service code of the Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers (JSME) provides a fracture evaluation methodology based on linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) for boiling water reactor (BWR) internal components irradiated to a neutron fluence of 3.0 × 1024 n/m2 or more. On the other hand, it is known that austenitic stainless steel maintains its ductility and toughness even after neutron irradiation up to the fluence expected for BWR internal components. Accordingly, it is preferable to apply the ductile fracture evaluation methodology for BWR internal components. The present study examined the applicability of damage mechanics analysis based on the Gurson‒Tvergaard‒Needleman (GTN) model for irradiated stainless steel. The changes of mechanical properties of the material due to neutron irradiation were simulated by cold working. As a result, in terms of material strength properties the applicability of the GTN model was confirmed for irradiated stainless steel using the simulated material for neutron fluence up to about 1.5 × 1025 n/m2. • Damage mechanics analysis based on the Gurson‒Tvergaard‒Needleman (GTN) model for irradiated stainless steel was investigated. • Changes of mechanical properties of the material due to neutron irradiation were simulated by cold working. • Fracture tests and analyses were performed with plate specimens. • Applicability of GTN model was examined by comparing the maximum loads and fracture behaviors between the tests and analyses. • Applicability of the GTN model was confirmed for irradiated stainless steel using the simulated material for neutron fluence up to about 1.5 × 1025 n/m2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

LT21 a type of aluminum alloy used for the irradiation channel of the first heavy water research reactor (HWRR) in China. Studying the mechanical property of irradiated LT21 aluminum under actual service conditions is essential for evaluating its application property. In this paper, tensile specimens of irradiated LT21 were manufactured from the decommissioned irradiation channel of an HWRR; then, tensile tests were carried out, and then the fracture surfaces were observed. The effect of neutron irradiation on tensile behavior and the failure mechanism was analyzed by comparing the result of irradiated and unirradiated LT21 specimens. The results show that, with the thermal neutron flux increasing to 2.38 × 1022 n/cm2, the YS gradually increased from the initial 158 MPa to 251 MPa, the UTS increased from 262 MPa to 321 MPa, and the elongation decreased from 28.8% to about 14.3%; the brittle fracture of the LT21 specimen appeared after irradiation, and the proportion of brittle fracture increased as the neutron fluence increased; the nanophase structures, with a size of less than 50 nm, were precipitated in the LT21 aluminum alloy after neutron irradiation. Transmutation Si is presumed to be the main cause of the radiation effect mechanism of LT21.

Reduced-pressure electron beam (EB) plate butt welds were manufactured in two low-alloy pressure-vessel steels, SA508 Gr 3 Cl 1 and SA508 Gr 2, at two thicknesses in both steels, 30 mm and 130 mm. Transient temperatures during welding were recorded using thermocouple arrays. Residual stresses in the as-welded condition and after post-weld heat treatment were measured using diverse methods: neutron diffraction and the contour method at 30 mm thickness; and deep hole drilling and the contour method at 130 mm. Incremental centre hole drilling measurements were performed at 130 mm thickness to better understand near-surface stresses. Weld and heat-affected zone microstructures and microconstituents were evaluated using a combination of hardness mapping, optical microscopy and electron microscopy. The as-welded residual stresses exhibit the characteristic M-shaped distribution for hardenable steels, reaching 500–600 MPa in tension in both steels at both thicknesses. However, the modest changes to the chemical composition and the change in plate thickness both significantly influenced microstructures, mechanical properties and residual stress distributions. These sensitivities underline the need for physically faithful models. This extensive characterisation study enables the development and validation of models that predict the development of microstructures and residual stresses in EB welds in low alloy pressure vessel steels.

• The changes in fracture behavior of stainless steel with in neutron dose can be predicted from the presented method. • The multiaxial fracture strain model is determined by simulating tensile and fracture toughness test. • The neutron irradiation embrittlement constant is determined by simulating tensile test. • The neutron irradiation embrittlement constant is multiplied with the multiaxial fracture strain model to simulate fracture toughness tests, enabling the prediction of degradation in fracture toughness due to neutron irradiation. This paper proposes a numerical method for predicting the reduction in the fracture toughness with neutron dose using the concept of an embrittlement constant. Tensile and fracture toughness test data for type 304 stainless steel in the literature [ 41 , 42 ] are used to validate the proposed method. Fracture toughness tests are simulated using a stress-modified fracture strain damage model implemented in an ABAQUS user-subroutine. The true stress-strain curve and one point of the fracture strain locus are obtained from the tensile test simulation. The remaining parameters of the fracture strain locus are determined by simulating a fracture toughness test. The fracture strain locus is modified to reflect the irradiation effect on the fracture toughness using the proposed irradiation embrittlement constant C I. The function of the constant with the neutron dose is calculated from the tensile tests and simulations. Subsequently, the modified damage model is used to predict the reduction in the fracture toughness. The predicted simulation results are compared with experimental data, showing good agreement. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Life extension of light water reactors requires robust models to predict the embrittlement of reactor pressure vessel (RPV) steels under long-term neutron irradiation. Embrittlement is due to nanoscale precipitation hardening by phases containing Cu, Mn, Ni, and Si, resulting in increases of the ductile to brittle transition temperature. Embrittlement data for low flux, high fluence extended life conditions, up to 80 years or more, are largely not available. Thus, higher flux, accelerated test reactor irradiations have been used to help develop models to predict low flux embrittlement at high fluence. Here flux, or dose rate, is expressed in units of displacements per atom per second (dpa/s). The dose rate can significantly influence precipitate evolution in a way that depends on fluence (dpa), temperature, and alloy composition, as well as flux itself. Here, we explore precipitation in surveillance steels with varying compositions at high fluxes (10−5–10−6 dpa/s) produced using 70 MeV Fe2+ ion irradiations. Atom probe tomography was used to characterize the dose dependence of precipitation at very high ion irradiation dose rates, and to evaluate corresponding similarities or differences compared to neutron irradiated steels at a much lower dose rate of ≈ 5 × 10−9 dpa/s. The data show that, on average, the ion irradiation precipitate volume fractions increase by factors of ∼ 1.5 to 2 between 0.3 dpa and 1.2 dpa. Limited data show that the major effect of neutron versus ion irradiation is the former has lower precipitate number densities and larger sizes. Otherwise, the precipitates are remarkably similar in composition and volume fraction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this work is to present a new analytical model to evaluate jointly the mechanical integrity and the fitness-for-service of nuclear reactor pressure-vessels steels. This new methodology integrates a robust and regulated irradiation embrittlement prediction model such as the ASTM E-900 with the ASME Fitness-for-Service code used widely in other demanding industries, such as oil and gas, to evaluate, among others, the risk of experiencing degradation mechanisms such as the brittle fracture (generated, in this case, due to the irradiation embrittlement). This multicriteria analytical model, which is based on a new formulation of the brittle fracture criterion, allows an adequate prediction of the irradiation effect on the fracture toughness of reactor pressure-vessel steels, letting us jointly evaluate the mechanical integrity and the fitness-for-service of the vessel by using standardized limit conditions. This allows making decisions during the design, manufacturing and in-service of reactor pressure vessels. The results obtained by the application of the methodology are coherent with several historical experimental works.

The behavior of solute atoms in an undersaturated Fe-3.3 at.%Ni model alloy upon heavy and light particle irradiations was investigated by Atom Probe Tomography. Whereas first irradiations, performed using 27 MeV Fe ions at 400 °C, highlight significant Ni enrichment on point defect clusters, solute-rich features detected after 2.8 MeV H + ion (400 °C) and 1 MeV electron (320 °C) irradiations are only associated with pre-existent microstructural defects. Nanoindentation tests show no hardening in light particle irradiated samples, strongly suggesting that no dislocation loop formed. These observations put forward the importance of point defect clusters resulting from displacement cascades in Ni clusters' formation. Image, graphical abstract [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In situ irradiation in transmission electron microscope following pre-irradiation was performed on Fe-0.6Ni alloy to investigate the growth of dislocation loops under irradiation. The observations showed two types of loop growth behaviour. One type was almost linear growth with irradiation dose, possibly caused by loop absorbing freely migrating defects. The other was abrupt growth with rapid increase in diameter. It was found that nanometre-sized loop might migrate one-dimensionally, following which the large loop could absorb the small loop. This process can result in the abrupt growth of loop and broadening of loop size distribution. Image, graphical abstract [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The microstructure and nanomechanical properties of three samples of the modified stainless steel (referred as the alloy D9) were systematically characterized after neutron irradiation in the Advanced Test Reactor. The samples were irradiated to 5.0, 8.2, and 9.2 displacements per atom at 448, 430, and 683°C, respectively. The evolutions of dislocation loops, cavities, and radiation-induced precipitates were quantitatively studied to reveal their dose and temperature dependencies. Nanohardness and nanoindentation creep tests were conducted at room temperature on the irradiated samples. Unexpected radiation hardening was observed in the highest-temperature-irradiated sample due to the formation of an unknown type of Ni- and Si-rich precipitates whose contributions to the radiation and mechanical performances of the alloy were discussed. We provide the radiation-microstructure-property correlations of alloy D9 with new insights, which can benefit the development and optimization of advanced austenitic alloys for future nuclear applications. Image, graphical abstract [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Post irradiation annealing (PIA) clarified the induced versus enhanced controversy regarding nanoscale Mn-Ni-Si precipitate (MNSP) formation in pressure vessel steels. Radiation induced MNSPs would dissolve under high temperature PIA, while radiation enhanced precipitates would be stable above a critical radius (r c). A Cu-free, high Ni steel was irradiated with 2.8MeV Fe2+ ions at two temperatures to generate MNSPs with average radii (r ¯) above and below an estimated r c for PIA at 425°C up to 52 weeks. Atom probe tomography and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy showed MNSPs with r < r c dissolved, while those with r > r c slightly coarsened, consistent with thermodynamic predictions. Image, graphical abstract [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study of irradiation hardening and embrittlement is critically important for the development of next-generation structural materials tolerant to neutron irradiation, and could dramatically affect the approach to the design of components for advanced nuclear reactors. In addition, a growing interest is observed in the field of research and development of irradiation-resistant materials. This review aims to provide an overview of the theoretical development related to irradiation hardening and embrittlement at moderate irradiation conditions achieved in recent years, which can help extend our fundamental knowledge on nuclear structural materials. After a general introduction to the irradiation effects on metallic materials, recent research progress covering theoretical modelling is summarized for different types of structural materials. The fundamental mechanisms are elucidated within a wide range of temporal and spatial scales. This review closes with the current understanding of irradiation hardening and embrittlement, and puts some perspectives deserving further study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An improved Cluster Dynamics (CD) model of Cu rich and Mn–Ni–Si phase co-precipitation was developed to provide insights on the combined effects of the flux, fluence, temperature and alloy composition on irradiation enhanced precipitation leading to the embrittlement of reactor pressure vessel steels. The CD model was calibrated using a large microstructural database, and key parameters (e.g., interfacial energies) were fitted to minimize the predicted versus measured errors. The CD model was further validated against data not used in the fitting. The CD model predicts that: a) even 0.05% Cu reduces the Mn, Ni, Si precipitation threshold fluence; b) precipitate number densities increase, while their sizes and volume fractions, decrease with increasing flux; c) precipitate number densities and volume fractions increase with decreasing temperature; and, d) most of the matrix Cu precipitates in the early years of vessel service, while MnNiSi precipitates continue to grow up to very high extended life fluence. Image 1 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mn-Ni-Si intermetallic precipitates (MNSPs) that are observed in some Fe-based alloys following thermal aging and irradiation are of considerable scientific and technical interest. For example, large volume fractions (f) of MNSPs form in reactor pressure vessel low alloy steels irradiated to high fluence, resulting in severe hardening induced embrittlement. Nine compositionally-tailored small heats of low Cu RPV-type steels, with an unusually wide range of dissolved Mn (0.06–1.34 at.%) and Ni (0.19–3.50 at.%) contents, were irradiated at ≈ 290 °C to ≈ 1.4 × 1020 n/cm2 at an accelerated test reactor flux of ≈3.6 × 1012 n/cm2-s (E > 1 MeV). Atom probe tomography shows Mn-Ni interactions play the dominant role in determining the MNSP f, which correlates well with irradiation hardening. The wide range of alloy compositions results in corresponding variations in precipitates chemistries that are reasonably similar to various phases in the Mn-Ni-Si projection of the Fe based quaternary. Notably, f scales with ≈ Ni1.6Mn0.8. Thus f is modest even in advanced high 3.5 at.% Ni steels at very low Mn (Mn starvation); in this case Ni-silicide phase type compositions are observed. Image 1 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• 9 chemical contents and 3 irradiation conditions were used as input factors. • The probability density distribution of Δ RT NDT was used to evaluated the model performance. • The GBDT model has the best performance, its prediction is close to that of ASTM E900-15. • FNF, T and the content of Cu, Ni, C are the most important 5 factors for irradiation embrittlement. A reliable irradiation embrittlement model of reactor pressure vessel (RPV) is critical to the safe operation and life extension of nuclear power plants (NPP). In this study, 474 datasets from NUREG/CR-6551 and 6 machine learning (ML) methods were adopted to accurately predict the irradiation embrittlement behavior (Δ RT NDT) of RPV with comprehensive input factors involving irradiation conditions and metal composition. The GBDT model has the best prediction performance. The calculated result by GBDT model is close to those of JEAC-4201 and ASTM E900-15. Cu content is the most sensitive factor for Δ RT NDT , followed by neutron fluence. This work demonstrates a successful application of ML in promoting NPP safety and RPV materials design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reactor pressure vessel (RPV) of pressurized water reactor undergoes severe neutron irradiation during normal operation and life-extension phase, thus leading to the formation of numerous nanometric irradiation-accelerated and irradiation-induced solute-enriched clusters among the ferritic matrix, including so-called late blooming phases (LBP), which was believed as Mn-Ni-Si enriched stable precipitates to emerge lately and grow rapidly and show great threat to the mechanical performance of RPV steels. However, the mechanism of nucleation and growing for LBP remains not in light, especially the effect of inherent defects such as dislocation and grain boundary on that. We investigated the atomic configurations of Fe-Cu, Fe-Mn, Fe-Ni, Fe-Mn-Ni, Fe-Mn-Cu, Fe-Ni-Cu and Fe-Mn-Ni-Cu as RPV model alloys at 600 K, implemented firstly by constructing an enough big simulation box containing edge dislocation and random-distributed alloy atoms and secondly evolving to equilibrium status after essential simulation steps with Metropolis Monte Carlo (MMC) method. The number of clusters, average solute numbers contained in each cluster and the volume atomic fraction of all clusters were characterized, as well as the structure of typical big clusters among simulation analyzed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The selection of materials for the reactor pressure vessel manufacturing is a complex process that involves great responsibility because small differences in chemical composition can adversely affect the manufacturing process and the in-service behavior of the material. Thus, it is recommendable to perform previous materials pre-selection stages based on the state-of-the-art knowledge, integrating research results with standardized requirements and using simplifier materials selection methodologies like the stringency level method. To address this issue, an evaluation of the influence of chemical composition on the shift of the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature has been performed using the most used and consolidated prediction models that are R.G. 1.99 Rev.2, NUREG/CR-6551, and ASTM E 900-02. A proposal of maximum limits for copper, nickel, and phosphorous to avoid irradiation embrittlement has been presented to carry out the process. The results have been analyzed by using the stringency level methodology to support the decision process. To this end, a materials data collection has been carried out to analyze the requirements described by 20 different specifications of materials from first to fourth generation of light water reactors, covering the main designs of pressurized reactors from Western Europe, North America, Japan, and Russia. It can be concluded that more recently developed materials exhibit more stringent requirements than earlier developed materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has long been recognized that exposure to irradiation environments could dramatically degrade the mechanical properties of nuclear structural materials, i.e., irradiation-hardening and embrittlement. With the development of numerical simulation capability and advanced experimental equipment, the mysterious veil covering the fundamental mechanisms of irradiation-hardening and embrittlement has been gradually unveiled in recent years. This review intends to offer an overview of the fundamental mechanisms in this field at moderate irradiation conditions. After a general introduction of the phenomena of irradiation-hardening and embrittlement, the formation of irradiation-induced defects is discussed, covering the influence of both irradiation conditions and material properties. Then, the dislocation-defect interaction is addressed, which summarizes the interaction process and strength for various defect types and testing conditions. Moreover, the evolution mechanisms of defects and dislocations are focused on, involving the annihilation of irradiation defects, formation of defect-free channels, and generation of microvoids and cracks. Finally, this review closes with the current comprehension of irradiation-hardening and embrittlement, and aims to help design next-generation irradiation-resistant materials.

Neutron irradiation following thermal ageing experiments were performed using Fe-Cu, Fe-Cu-Ni, Fe-Cu-Ni-Mn, and Fe-Cu-Si alloys to investigate the effects of Ni, Mn, and Si on the formation of Cu-rich clusters and their chemical composition. Atom probe tomography showed that Ni and Mn increased the number density of Cu-rich clusters. This can be caused by that Ni and Mn reduce the formation energy of Cu nuclei, thus enhancing the Cu nucleation rate. Mn may also enhance the heterogeneous nucleation of Cu because of its strong interaction with self-interstitial atoms. In addition, Mn can accelerate solute diffusion during thermal ageing. A high Ni alloying content enhanced the Mn concentration in the clusters as well as the Ni concentration, which is believed to be caused by the thermodynamic relationship between Ni and Mn. In Fe-Cu-Si alloys, the Si concentration in the clusters was very low and was comparable to the Si alloying content. This indicates that Si atoms hardly cluster with Cu. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reactor pressure vessel (RPV) is the critical un-changeable component of the reactor during its service lifetime, which prevents the radioactive leak of the nuclear power plant core. The irradiation test (about 10 × 10 19 cm − 2 , E > 1 MeV) in research reactor of the pressure vessel material was carried out, and the charpy impact test has been carried out before and after the neutron irradiation. Analysis of the impact energy and the fracture morphology has been done to estimate the embrittlement due to neutron irradiation. It shows that the main effects of neutron irradiation to fracture are the crack initiation and stable expansion process. And there also are a small amount of intergranular fracture in the unstable crack expansion after neutron irradiated which aware us pay more attention to the increasing intergranular fracture behavior of higher neutron fluence level after 60a nuclear power plant operation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Basing on the analysis of the radiation embrittlement of RPV materials, the paper proposes a model and dependencies for description of WWER-1000 vessel material embrittlement with copper content above 0.10%. Standard dose-time trend curves have been modernized. The dose-time trend curves have been modernized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A titanium aluminide (TiAl) alloy 45XD has been irradiated by a He ion beam with an energy of 5 MeV on a tandem accelerator at the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organization (ANSTO). The total fluence of He ions was 5 × 10 17 ion cm −2 . A 17 μm uniform damage region from the material surface with a helium concentration of about 5000 appm was achieved by using an energy degrading wheel in front of the TiAl target. The micro-size test specimens from the damage layer were fabricated using a focused ion beam & scanning electron microscope (FIB-SEM) system. The in situ SEM micromechanical compressive testing was carried out inside an SEM and the results indicated irradiation embrittlement in the helium affected region. Electron back scatter diffraction (EBSD) analysis has been applied to reveal the orientation of the lamellae in the TiAl specimens, and used to understand the deformation processes in the sample. The irradiation damage of gallium ion beam from FIB on the surface of TiAl sample was also investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A theoretical study is conducted to evaluate the nucleation free energy of copper-vacancy clusters in Fe as a function of the numbers of copper atoms and of vacancies in a cluster. Using this free energy value, cluster nucleation processes during irradiation are investigated. The results clearly show that there are two different types of cluster nucleation paths on the free energy surface; one is the formation of empty voids by jumping over the ridge of the free energy surface, and the other corresponds to a path for the formation of copper clusters by going around the ridge. The dependence of easy nucleation paths on the damage rate is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A multiscale modeling approach was applied to investigate the nucleation process of CRPs (copper rich precipitates, i.e., copper-vacancy clusters) in α-Fe containing 1 at.% Cu during irradiation. Monte-Carlo simulations were performed to investigate the nucleation process, with the rate theory equation analysis to evaluate the concentration of displacement defects, along with the molecular dynamics technique to know CRP thermal stabilities in advance. Our MC simulations showed that there is long incubation period at first, followed by a rapid growth of CRPs. The incubation period depends on irradiation conditions such as the damage rate and temperature. CRP’s composition during nucleation varies with time. The copper content of CRPs shows relatively rich at first, and then becomes poorer as the precipitate size increases. A widely-accepted model of CRP nucleation process is finally proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of prediction model on irradiation embitterment (PMIE) of reactor pressure vessel (RPV) is an important method for nuclear reactor long term operation. Based on the physical mechanism of RPV irradiation embrittlement, a preliminary model is determined and the critical threshold of Cu content of 0.072% is obtained according to this preliminary model. Then a prediction model named PMIE-2020 for low Cu RPV steels is developed. At last the residual, standard deviation and predicted values and test values distribution analysis are given. Simultaneously, a comparison between PMIE-2020 and other prediction model and irradiation data is provided. Results indicate that the predicted results of PMIE-2020 has no tendency with influence factors such as neutron fluence, flux, irradiation temperature, chemical elements Cu, P, Mn, Ni, Si. The residual standard deviation is 10.76 °C, which is lower than present prediction model. The distribution between predicted values of PMIE-2020 and test values are located the area near the 45° line. These results prove that the PMIE-2020 have high accuracy on irradiation embrittlement prediction., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2023 The Authors.)

Solute cluster induced hardening plays a dominant role in the irradiation embrittlement of reactor pressure vessel. For Cu-rich clusters, the Russell and Brown model (1972) is often applied for their correlation with hardening, but many parameters of the model are taken as adjustable to fit specific experimental data. In this work, a correlation is attempted and discussed between Cu-rich clusters and hardening in a series of reactor pressure vessel model alloys. Compared with the Cu clusters of the same size, Cu-rich clusters containing Ni and Mn may have lower obstacle strength and cause lower hardening. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Samples harvested from an HT-9 fuel test assembly (ACO-3) irradiated for six years in the Fast Flux Test Facility (FFTF) reaching 2–147 dpa at 382–504 °C were deformed in-situ while collecting high-energy X-ray diffraction data to monitor microstructure evolution. With the initiation of plastic deformation, all samples exhibited a clear load transfer from the ferrite matrix to carbide particulate. This behavior was confirmed by modeling of the control material. The evolution of dislocation density in the material as a result of deformation was characterized through full pattern line profile analysis. The dislocation densities increased substantially after deformation, the level of dislocation evolution observed was highly dependent upon the irradiation temperature of the sample. Differences in both the yield and hardening behavior between samples irradiated at higher and lower temperatures suggest the existence of a transition in tensile behavior at an irradiation temperature near 420 °C dividing regions of distinct damage effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]