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Documenting tangible cultural heritage using 3D modeling techniques is gradually becoming an indispensable component of archaeological practice. The 3D modeling techniques based on photogrammetry and LiDAR scanning enable high-accuracy and high-realistic reconstruction of archaeological sites, and have been proven a powerful tool for documenting archaeological excavations. However, dynamically documenting an ongoing excavation using these techniques is still considered tedious, time-consuming, expensive, and dependent on expertise. Moreover, the application of 3D modeling techniques in archaeological excavations still faces some technical challenges, such as modeling with multi-source and multi-scale data, fusing local models at different times into a whole, achieving fast modeling while GPU workstations are not available in the field, and evaluating the quality of 3D models. As a result, there are still very few archaeological teams deeply engaged in dynamic documentation with 3D modeling techniques, and traditional drawing sketches and taking photographs still dominate. In these senses, documenting the archaeological excavation at the Yunxian Man site (located in Hubei, China) is an invaluable opportunity for exploration and practice. Archaeologists determined to conduct dynamically documenting at the beginning of the 6th excavation project for the site, and established a rotation system to reconcile physical excavation with digital preservation. Through repeated practice and communication, we proposed a workflow and pursued several new methods to enhance the feasibility of dynamically documenting, and obtained 4D models of the ongoing archaeological excavations. In 2022, the Yunxian Man site unearthed the most intact fossil of hominin cranium from about one million years ago in the Eurasian continent, preserving important and scarce anatomical features of early humans in Asia. As the original taphonomic context of the fossil corroded away during physical excavations, the digital documentation consisting of 4D models serves as permanent original data source in subsequent archaeological research. Moreover, we obtained cross-scale 3D models from geographical environment to archaeological site, excavation area, and cultural remains, and all of these 3D models are in an actual, unified coordinate framework. Thus, we can contribute to multidisciplinary cross-collaborative research through data sharing. Considering that digital documentations serve a great value in archaeological research, this paper focuses on sharing the workflow and methods to facilitate digital preservation for more archaeological projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Volatile organic solids, such as cyclododecane or menthol, have been employed as temporary reinforcement material during archaeological excavations. They are usually applied as melts and reinforcement is achieved once the melts solidify. Such solidification process can induce internal stress on the artifacts, which can be a big concern, especially to those very precious and fragile ones. However, information about such stress is still extremely limited at present. This paper proposes an experimental method based on resistance strain gauge technique to monitor the deformation induced by solidification of menthol melt. Bending tests are performed on very thin glass slides. The solidification process of menthol melt is well characterized by the development of mechanical strains. Then, menthol melts are applied to three kinds of simulated samples, i.e. glass, sandstone and rice paper, to investigate the mechanical response of preserved bodies upon solidification. It is found that menthol melt will generate certain amount expansion or contraction of the objects upon solidification. The stresses induced, evaluated according to obtained strains, are generally quite small, indicating that application of menthol as reinforcement material is safe in mechanics for cultural relics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is a final report of the 2011 season of excavation at the archaeological site of Gadara (Umm Qais) in Jordan. The season was directed by Lamia El-Khouri (PhD), during the 15th of June until the 28th of July 2011. The excavation took place in Area Z, along the southern edge of the main colonnaded street (Decumanus Maximus). The main discoveries showed that this part of the city was occupied during several historical periods, from the Late Hellenistic until the Crusader–Mamluk periods. The majority of archaeological artefacts in the excavated area showed clear evidence of intensive human activities mostly in the Late Byzantine, Umayyad and Abbasid periods. This paper includes a full description of the historical levels as well as the most impressive archaeological finds that were collected during the excavation. An isometric reconstruction drawing of the original construction was produced to give a better view of the city of Gadara during the Graeco–Roman period. As it has been delineated by the stylobate and the other architectural remains, this building seems to have been part of an inner courtyard lined by an Ionic peristyle. It was perhaps a sort of square-shaped colonnaded enclosure, a courtyard, or an open-air garden used for exercise, whether it was part of a bath construction, or a palaestra on the atrium of a private house or a gymnasium. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As powerful economic and cultural centers, fortified sites played an important role in early medieval society. In Central Europe, early medieval fortified site research has been an essential topic for several generations. However, gradual changes in the landscape are a threat to these cultural heritage monuments. The main task of this paper was to compare the previous results from archaeological excavations with new data acquired by geophysical methods. The presented study is based on the three methods widely used in archaeology: magnetometry, ground-penetrating radar, and electrical resistivity tomography. New surveys provide information about the internal structure and the state of preservation of the fortifications in a non-destructive way. Comparison of the results encourages the evaluation of archaeological excavation and helps determine the suitability and effectiveness of geophysical methods in specific natural conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evidence of past earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and floods has been discovered during archaeological excavations. The Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties (hereafter referred to as "NABUNKEN") has been constructing and releasing the "Historical Disaster Evidence Database" constructed upon Geographic Information System (GIS; hereafter referred to as "HDE-GISdb") by compiling disaster evidence information from excavation sites throughout Japan. Through this initiative, we aim to build an information infrastructure that will facilitate not only the elucidation of disaster occurrence mechanisms and local disaster histories but also disaster prevention and mitigation research. This paper discusses the effectiveness of HDE-GISdb using a case study of the Palace and Capital of Nagaoka sites in Kyoto Prefecture to visualize potential hazards, which cannot be read from topography, by disaster evidence recorded in Holocene and Pleistocene deposits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Middle-to-Upper Paleolithic transition in Europe covers the last millennia of Neanderthal life together with the appearance and expansion of Modern Human populations. Culturally, it is defined by the Late Middle Paleolithic succession, and by Early Upper Paleolithic complexes like the Châtelperronian (southwestern Europe), the Protoaurignacian, and the Early Aurignacian. Up to now, the southern boundary for the transition has been established as being situated between France and Iberia, in the Cantabrian façade and Pyrenees. According to this, the central and southern territories of Iberia are claimed to have been the refuge of the last Neanderthals for some additional millennia after they were replaced by anatomically Modern Humans on the rest of the continent. In this paper, we present the Middle-to-Upper Paleolithic transition sequence from Cova Foradada (Tarragona), a cave on the Catalan Mediterranean coastline. Archaeological research has documented a stratigraphic sequence containing a succession of very short-term occupations pertaining to the Châtelperronian, Early Aurignacian, and Gravettian. Cova Foradada therefore represents the southernmost Châtelperronian–Early Aurignacian sequence ever documented in Europe, significantly enlarging the territorial distribution of both cultures and providing an important geographical and chronological reference for understanding Neanderthal disappearance and the complete expansion of anatomically Modern Humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents the initial observations on a lesser-known but extremely interesting monument at Hadrian's Villa, the so-called Tabernae, partly restored and used at present as Antiquarium of refined marble statuary, and partly closed to the public and still under excavation. The building consists of two adjoining structures on high substructures resting on two different levels of the tuff layer. In recent years, on the occasion of some works for the museum, an excavation has brought to light some remains; from then onwards the team has taken an interest in the building built on the upper terraces, proving its rectangular plan with a central courtyard thanks to additional archaeological excavations. Research activities are still ongoing; however, a complete terrestrial laser scanner survey of the whole building has already been started, considering both levels, in order to analyse in depth the remains and the architectural structure of the complex. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 3D orientation of clasts within a deposit are known to be informative on processes that formed that deposit. In archaeological sites, a portion of the clasts in the deposit are introduced by non-geological processes, and these are typically systematically recorded in archaeological excavations with total stations. By recording a second point on elongated clasts it is possible to quickly and precisely capture their orientation. The statistical and graphical techniques for analyzing these data are well published, and there is a growing set of actualistic and archaeological comparative data to help with the interpretation of the documented patterns. This paper advances this area of research in presenting methods to address some shortcomings in current methodologies. First, a method for calculating confidence intervals on orientation statistics is presented to help address the question of how many objects are needed to assess the formation of a deposit based on orientations. Second, a method for assessing the probability that two assemblages have different orientations is presented based on permutations testing. This method differs from existing ones in that it considers three-dimensional orientations rather than working separately with the two-dimensional bearing and plunge components. Third, a method is presented to examine spatial variability in orientations based on a moving windows approach. The raw data plus the R code to build this document and to implement these methods plus those already described by McPherron are included to help further their use in assessing archaeological site formation processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on the technological characteristics of Keilmesser with a lateral tranchet blow modification on the cutting edge. It examines the underlying technological production of these bifacial objects: this implies the evaluation of their working stage succession, as well as produced forms necessary for the execution of tranchet blow performance. Furthermore, it offers a techno-morphological description of these enigmatic tools. The Keilmesser with tranchet blow and corresponding blanks of tranchet blows from Grotte de la Verpillière I in Germolles (Saône-et-Loire, France) are used as case study. The collection of Keilmesser with tranchet blow and corresponding blanks of tranchet blow has been massively expanded with new fieldwork and the review of ancient assemblages. The majority of the pieces were made on blanks from local raw material. The evaluation of the underlying production concept shows that a Keilmesser with tranchet blow, regardless of the wide range of morphologies and matrix size, always consists of specific parts that are necessary for the production sequence and the assumed function. The production of these pieces follows highly specific working stages, some of which can be interchanged in sequence. However, it is always the goal to obtain a low-angled cutting edge. The performance of a tranchet blow is not only an integral part of production, but it is rather the aim of the entire production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work presents the initial thoughts towards the harmonization of the CRMba and CRMarchaeo models, two extensions of the CIDOC CRM, the former developed to model the complexity of a built structure from the perspective of buildings archaeology, while the latter was developed to model the processes involved in the investigation of subsurface archaeological deposits. The paper describes the modelling principles of CRMba and CRMarchaeo, and identifies common concepts that will allow to merge the two ontological models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Regions densely populated with archaeological monuments pose significant challenges for construction investors and archaeologists during the planning stages of major construction projects. Recognising the archaeological potential of these areas is crucial for planning effective rescue excavations, which have become a standard procedure in construction. This study explores the utility of non-invasive prospection techniques, including artefact field surveys, multispectral imaging, and magnetic surveys, in assessing the area chosen for the I/16 Slaný–Velvary road construction. We specifically focused on the contributions these methods make towards understanding the archaeological context of the proposed construction site. The findings from the magnetic survey were compared with the results of actual archaeological excavations. Through manual visual analysis and statistical spatial correlation, we assessed the effectiveness of the magnetic survey. The ability of magnetic survey to locate different types of archaeological objects proved to be dependent on various factors. The variability of the environmental setting, particularly pedological and geological conditions, is essential. However, the modern anthropogenic impact and the very nature of individual archaeological objects, especially their dimensions, also play an essential role. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent decades, it has been frequently asserted that the standardization of recording methods for archaeological excavation has compromised the quality of site records because interpretative information is minimal, and it is difficult to assess its security due to the absence of a reflexive background. For many archaeologists, single-context recording is the perfect example of such problems in field recording. But this claim is controversial, as it is inconsistent with archaeological interpretative theory that states that field interpretation and data quality depend on various epistemic circumstances, such as the skill of fieldworkers, the background knowledge of a site, and the character of remains. By taking an example of a commercial excavation in London, this paper will show the extent to which standardization and other epistemic factors determine the process of field recording. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Volatile organic solids, such as cyclododecane or menthol, have been employed as temporary reinforcement material during archaeological excavations. They are usually applied as melts and reinforcement is achieved once the melts solidify. Such solidification process can induce internal stress on the artifacts, which can be a big concern, especially to those very precious and fragile ones. However, information about such stress is still extremely limited at present. This paper proposes an experimental method based on resistance strain gauge technique to monitor the deformation induced by solidification of menthol melt. Bending tests are performed on very thin glass slides. The solidification process of menthol melt is well characterized by the development of mechanical strains. Then, menthol melts are applied to three kinds of simulated samples, i.e. glass, sandstone and rice paper, to investigate the mechanical response of preserved bodies upon solidification. It is found that menthol melt will generate certain amount expansion or contraction of the objects upon solidification. The stresses induced, evaluated according to obtained strains, are generally quite small, indicating that application of menthol as reinforcement material is safe in mechanics for cultural relics.

This paper discusses archaeobotanical remains of naked barley recovered from the Okhotsk cultural layers of the Hamanaka 2 archaeological site on Rebun Island, northern Japan. Calibrated ages (68% confidence interval) of the directly dated barley remains suggest that the crop was used at the site ca. 440–890 cal yr AD. Together with the finds from the Oumu site (north-eastern Hokkaido Island), the recovered seed assemblage marks the oldest well-documented evidence for the use of barley in the Hokkaido Region. The archaeobotanical data together with the results of a detailed pollen analysis of contemporaneous sediment layers from the bottom of nearby Lake Kushu point to low-level food production, including cultivation of barley and possible management of wild plants that complemented a wide range of foods derived from hunting, fishing, and gathering. This qualifies the people of the Okhotsk culture as one element of the long-term and spatially broader Holocene hunter–gatherer cultural complex (including also Jomon, Epi-Jomon, Satsumon, and Ainu cultures) of the Japanese archipelago, which may be placed somewhere between the traditionally accepted boundaries between foraging and agriculture. To our knowledge, the archaeobotanical assemblages from the Hokkaido Okhotsk culture sites highlight the north-eastern limit of prehistoric barley dispersal. Seed morphological characteristics identify two different barley phenotypes in the Hokkaido Region. One compact type (naked barley) associated with the Okhotsk culture and a less compact type (hulled barley) associated with Early–Middle Satsumon culture sites. This supports earlier suggestions that the “Satsumon type” barley was likely propagated by the expansion of the Yayoi culture via south-western Japan, while the “Okhotsk type” spread from the continental Russian Far East region, across the Sea of Japan. After the two phenotypes were independently introduced to Hokkaido, the boundary between both barley domains possibly existed ca. 600–1000 cal yr AD across the island region. Despite a large body of studies and numerous theoretical and conceptual debates, the question of how to differentiate between hunter–gatherer and farming economies persists reflecting the wide range of dynamic subsistence strategies used by humans through the Holocene. Our current study contributes to the ongoing discussion of this important issue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The Middle Pleistocene site of Ambrona (Soria, Spain) is a major reference for European Acheulean studies. The origin of the lithic and fauna accumulations at this site was first thought to be anthropogenic, but later studies showed that it was mainly natural. The first person to conduct excavations at the Ambrona site was the Marquis of Cerralbo, in 1914; other research groups followed in more recent times (the Howell & Freeman team and the Santonja & Pérez-González team). The digs yielded a great amount of information, but until now it had never been unified. In this paper, we compile all the available published and unpublished excavation documentation from the 1960s to the present. We use these maps and sections to present our spatial study of the LSM (Lower Stratigraphic Member) at the Ambrona site, combining stratigraphic criteria with GIS density and orientation analysis. This study enabled us to define the main concentrations of the LSM, providing an initial contribution to an assessment of their accumulation processes. Most of the concentrations preserved in the ancient shore area of the site display marked orientation patterns which coincide with the direction of the main water flows into the Ambrona wetland. However, random orientation patterns were observed in the central part of the site (Alpha concentration); they may be mostly preserved without undergoing transport processes, as previous taphonomic studies also confirm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Mosquitia ecosystem of Honduras occupies the fulcrum between the American continents and as such constitutes a critical region for understanding past patterns of socio-political development and interaction. Heavy vegetation, rugged topography, and remoteness have limited scientific investigation. This paper presents prehistoric patterns of settlement and landuse for a critical valley within the Mosquitia derived from airborne LiDAR scanning and field investigation. We show that (i) though today the valley is a wilderness it was densely inhabited in the past; (ii) that this population was organized into a three-tiered system composed of 19 settlements dominated by a city; and, (iii) that this occupation was embedded within a human engineered landscape. We also add to a growing body of literature that demonstrates the utility of LiDAR as means for rapid cultural assessments in undocumented regions for analysis and conservation. Our ultimate hope is for our work to promote protections to safeguard the unique and critically endangered Mosquitia ecosystem and other similar areas in need of preservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we describe 485 Oliva spp. shell beads recovered from four archaeological cave sites Jerimalai, Lene Hara, Matja Kuru 1, and Matja Kuru 2, located in Timor-Leste, Island Southeast Asia. While Pleistocene-aged examples of modified marine shells used for personal ornamentation are common in African and Eurasian assemblages, they are exceedingly rare in Southeast Asia, leading some researchers to suggest that these Modern Human societies were less complex than those found further west. In Timor-Leste, the lowest Oliva bead to be recovered was directly dated to ca. 37,000 cal. BP, making it the oldest piece of personal ornamentation in Southeast Asia. Morphometric, taphonomic, use wear, and residue analyses of these beads alongside modern reference specimens, and experimentally made examples indicate that the Oliva shells were modified to be strung consecutively (as in a necklace), and while their mode of production changed remarkably little over the thousands of years they were utilised, an increase in their deposition around 6,000 cal. BP suggests that there was a change in their use coinciding with sea-level stabilisation. These tiny beads demonstrate that early Island Southeast Asian societies produced the same kinds of symbolic material culture we have come to expect from the more intensively studied African/Eurasian region, and that limited sampling and poor recovery methods have biased our perspectives of this region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Temporary consolidation is widely used to protect delicate artefacts or other fragile relics in art conservation. Although cyclododecane is extensively accepted, the safety-related issues have become an increasing concern and its short working time is always annoying. Inspired by its low melting point, polar structure, well-established safety profile, easy local availability and low cost, we propose menthol as a new temporary consolidant on the new excavation site of Qin Shihuang's Terracotta Army. In this paper, we offer a preliminarily exploration of the kinetics of menthol sublimation on two different matrices, its residue after volatilization, its penetrability and distribution in simulated terracotta samples, as well as other important properties in the laboratory. The results obtained from these tests reveal that the sublimation of menthol can be a zero- or a first-order process, depending on the porosity of the matrices, and its best operational temperature resides in the range of 60-80° C. Finally, two field cases at the archaeological site of Qin Shihuang's Terracotta Army are presented to show that menthol is a very effective temporary consolidant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although archaeology is not the only research discipline where fieldwork is one of the tools in the process of acquiring knowledge, rare are the disciplines that harness and organize physical labour of non-professionals in the ways done by archaeologists during excavations. Throughout the history of archaeology the usage of physical labour has implied a firm hierarchical order in accordance to which archaeologists have bought or exploited human work during excavations. The physical effort to uncover the layers of earth covering archaeological sites is a tacitly implied part of the archaeological practice. The dichotomy and the relationship between an archaeologist/director of excavations/decision-maker, who considers, analyses and interprets the archaeological record, and the workers who undertake the more physically demanding tasks, has remained largely unchanged, conditioned by the traditional and commonsensical attitude towards archaeological practice. It is paradoxical that the research discipline, publicly mainly recognized through excavations, rarely investigates the conditions under which the human labour is organized and exploited during field campaigns. The paper treats some characteristic examples dating into the end of the 19th and the first half of the 20th century, starting with the excavations at Viminacium, the works at Stobi between the two world wars, and finally the forced labour during the World War II harnessed during the works at Kalemegdan. By discussing the ways and conditions under which human labour was used during these archaeological excavations, the paper raises the issue of the intention of archaeology and who is it aimed for. The cited examples point to the conclusion that the conditions of an archaeological excavation reflect the society, and the way in which the human labour was organized here speaks of the ways of valorising work. The examples of Viminacium and Stobi indicate that the idea of cultural heritage as a common good was shared by a small number of representatives of middle and higher social statuses, while physical labourers possessed no right over it. The excavations at Kalemegdan quite explicitly speak of the many ways in which the Third Reich exploited forced labour.

This contribution delves into the ways of archaeological reasoning based on material remains, tackled as minute physical traces or signs capable of shedding light on underlying and otherwise unapproachable past phenomena. This is indeed the basis of Microhistory or the conjectural paradigm in History. This article identifies key characteristics regarding this way of inductive or "bottom-up" inference and demonstrates its prospects when applied to prehistoric contexts. To illustrate this point, the article draws on a case study from the protohistory of Iberia: The treasure of Aliseda (seventh–sixth centuries BCE). This one-off assemblage – a true anomaly in its time, past, and present – was accidentally found in 1920 and has thenceforth been subject to assorted interpretations – mainly as individual burial goods from a feminine tomb – using deductive reasoning constrained by strong prejudices. A recent and comprehensive revision of this issue from an inductive and multi-stranded approach – mobilising several independent lines of evidence – has led to a fresh, sounder, and finer-grained micro-narrative. This case exemplifies a successful microhistorical enquiry, which has tracked retrospectively an array of inadvertent observations – from legacy dataset, new fieldwork, and science-based analyses – to illuminate the deviant circumstances framing this occurrence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primary challenge for the earthen sites of great historic and scientific value in China is attributed to drying cracks. We investigated 105 exposed partial-cave tombs in the Yangguanzhai Site Cemetery to understand drying cracks' growth process and characteristics. Real-time monitoring and observations were further conducted toward one specific tomb during archaeological excavation for finer-grain records. Results show that these cracks grew rapidly on the soil surface during the early stage of the excavation and some then transformed to more severe deterioration, such as gullies and collapses. Intriguingly, most drying cracks found on the side surface grew initially from top areas and extended downward vertically and independently. By contrast, their counterparts on the bottom surface were curved and twisted with one another. The changes of the soil properties and water content in soil at different depths suggest that larger porosity and smaller-size soil particles facilitate faster water absorption and evaporation of superficial soil, whereas low rates of water evaporation and soil desiccation on the flat bottom surface slows down the formation of drying cracks. Further investigations and field experiments are the next steps in building complete growth models of drying cracks and fully understanding the underlying mechanism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis (YDIH) states that North America was devastated by some sort of extraterrestrial event ~12,800 calendar years before present. Two fundamental questions persist in the debate over the YDIH: Can the results of analyses for purported impact indicators be reproduced? And are the indicators unique to the lower YD boundary (YDB), i.e., ~12.8k cal yrs BP? A test reported here presents the results of analyses that address these questions. Two different labs analyzed identical splits of samples collected at, above, and below the ~12.8ka zone at the Lubbock Lake archaeological site (LL) in northwest Texas. Both labs reported similar variation in levels of magnetic micrograins (>300 mg/kg >12.8ka and <11.5ka, but <150 mg/kg 12.8ka to 11.5ka). Analysis for magnetic microspheres in one split, reported elsewhere, produced very low to nonexistent levels throughout the section. In the other split, reported here, the levels of magnetic microspherules and nanodiamonds are low or nonexistent at, below, and above the YDB with the notable exception of a sample <11,500 cal years old. In that sample the claimed impact proxies were recovered at abundances two to four orders of magnitude above that from the other samples. Reproducibility of at least some analyses are problematic. In particular, no standard criteria exist for identification of magnetic spheres. Moreover, the purported impact proxies are not unique to the YDB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Archaeology is becoming increasingly ‘digital’. In the last 10 years, the use of 3D technologies for the documentation of tangible cultural heritage has changed the way to approach archaeological intra-site survey. These technologies allow for the reproduction of 3D replicas of sites and monuments and have proven to be a powerful tool for the documentation and preservation of the archaeological record. However, the full integration of 3D technologies in archaeological field methods requires the definition of best documentation practices and methods of accurate assessment of the acquired data. In fact, although the use of 3D laser scanners, computer vision and photogrammetric methods is now well established, there are no convincing quantitative comparisons between laser scanning and image-based modelling techniques for the acquisition of archaeological stratigraphy in extreme environmental and lighting conditions. In this sense the 3D documentation of the archaeological site of Las Cuevas, Belize, represented an important opportunity to test and compare phase shift variation laser scanning and image-based modelling techniques in an environment characterized by very high humidity and variability in lighting. This study compared both the accuracy and density reliability of 3D models showing how the different 3D documentation techniques can be integrated for the recording of the excavation process. The research presented in this paper provides an accurate data assessment representing a concrete starting point for the definition of a sharable and overall methodology that will help to define best 3D practices for the documentation of archaeological sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Excavating an ancient Maya city requires a long-term archaeological project that entails adequate documentation procedures for the unearthed remains, frequently of monumental scale and with difficult preservation conditions. A digital laser scanner survey methodology was designed and implemented to document the exposed architecture and to follow-up the archaeological excavation of the Maya site of La Blanca (Peten, Guatemala). All scans collected during the different field seasons were stored and aligned in a common reference system. Thus, an accurate digital three-dimensional database was obtained, including all the architectural remains found, some of which had to be reburied to ensure their preservation. The resulting database is a helpful repository that facilitates to extract all the graphic outputs required for: planning the next excavation campaigns, monitoring the preservation of the buildings, studying the architecture and construction technology in detail, and disseminating the excavation results. This paper describes the methodology and procedures used to build-up this database.

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The Rondolere steelworks, situated at 1176 m in the upper Sessera valley (Bioglio, Biella, Italy), treated iron ore and cast iron to be transformed into semi finished and finished products. The activities were begun by G.B. Rej in 1784 and were carried on by L. Ramella until 1813. After desertion, the site was reconverted into a pastoral settlement since 1854-1885, by construction of new buildings and modification of the existing ones. An archaic blast furnace, operative until 1804, treated at first local magnetite ore from nearby Pietra Bianca deposits, then, finally, after the exhaustion of these mines, hematite bought at Traversella (Chiusella valley). This uneconomic constraint was the cause of the standstill of cast iron production. However, the finery and the associated hydraulic hammer continued to convert imported cast iron into steel and to produce wrought iron agricultural tools. Several archive documents of the Napoleonic era specify the provenance of the cast iron (Ivrea), its purchase and transport prices, the treatment capacity of the plant (5,4-10,8 t of cast iron in the years 1807-1810, with on output of 80,7%), the consumption rate (6:1) and price of Beech charcoal (as confirmed by archaeobotanical analyses) fuel, the daily production in steel (200 kg), the number of workers and their salary. Archaeological excavations and restorations in the years 2002-2004 revealed the entire plant and transformed it in an archaeometallurgical area open to the public. Particularly important is the presence of the finery, a complex, not yet well know installation, which was rarely archaeologically identified and excavated in Europe, being sometimes took for hearths having a different function. The evidences point out a 2,6 x 2,5 m² large, more than 1,5 m high, installation, built in the same room housing the hammer, one of the chaferies existing in the site, a tank for diluted clay and other equipments. The lower part of the finery was protected by stone slabs and ashlars coming from the post-functional collapse of cowl, roof and walls. So, several components -- masonry, basin, working surfaces, a thick stone work bench -- are well preserved and measurable, allowing us to know or to reconstruct the position and the technical features of clay coating, tuyere, underground blowing duct and slag evacuation device. Most of constituent materials -- mica schist, monzonite, clay -- were locally selected in surrounding slope deposits, but in the wall housing the tuyere an allochthonous fine grained gneiss was used. High temperature heating requested by cast iron decarbonization (up to 1300-1400 °C) caused a deep thermal alteration, in oxidizing conditions, of such materials. Two melted surfaces on the opposite inner side walls indicate that cast iron plates, normally covering the basin as referred by several old texts, were not in use at Rondolere. Production rejects include ferrous powder, prevalently broken cast iron ingots, three types of slag, steel bar cuttings and semi finished items. An entire ingot, trapezoidal cake shaped, was re-employed as building material in the pastoral settlement. The chemical analyses detected the absence of graphite, placing the samples within white cast iron, with ≤ 3,90% carbon content. This low percentage may be explained by the small height of the blast furnace (4,55 m from the top to the bottom of the crucible). Refining slag revealed fayalite (iron silicate), wüstite (iron oxide) and consistent metal proportions FeO- and Fe-shaped. Some steel semi finished objects bear a film of hardened grey clay, resulting from the immersion in a diluted clay bath, to avoid the pieces to weld together during the manufacturing. Old technical handbooks and drawings may help in the study of archaeometallurgical remains, but their use is not always simple. The plants should be compared on the basis of their functions and production processes, not of their morphological similarities. Equally important is the chronological and geographical consistency of the sources, although the transfers of technology coming from study journeys and displacement of workers should not be forgotten. In such a perspective, the Rondolere finery is interpreted with reference to the manuscript Viaggi Mineralogici by S.B. Nicolis di Robilant (1788), to the treatises De venarum metallicarum excoctione by E. Pini (1779-1780), La sidérotechnie by J.-H. Hassenfratz (1812) and to the drawings of the Napoleonic era representing steelworks in Biella region. The paper aims at starting a refl ection, on an archaeological ground, on the classification of the fineries, by setting aside the geographical terminology inherited from the XVIIIth-XIXth century handbooks and by stressing the technological details and the correspondences between material and documentary data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a chronological overview of the study of the Uvek settlement. Arguably one of the oldest cities and major political and economic centers of the Golden Horde, Ukek stood at the intersection of the Northern branch of the Great Silk Road and the Great Volga Trade Route, providing trade caravans and embassies a safe way across the Volga on their further journey to the Crimea or Scandinavia. It is noted that having been weakened by the decline of trade and the plague outbreak, Ukek was completely destroyed by Tamerlane and soon forgotten. It is safe to say that much of the credit for conducting research of that archaeological site belongs to researchers from countries other than Russia. The aim of the article is to reveal the role of German researchers in the study of Ukek. Methods of research. The author provides a timeline of the research of the Uvek archaeological site carried out by German archeologists. Having consulted various sources, primarily academic papers, the author has been able to collect information about the German researchers of Ukek and analyze their academic contribution. It is noted that the first scientific publication about Ukek was published in German as German researchers revealed the connection between Ukek and the Uvek settlement and started the first excavations there. As a result of the analysis, the article concludes that German archeologists, being at the origins of the research of the Uvek archaeological site, contributed to the formation of the traditions of the archeological schools of Volga region. The author emphasizes that the course of the study of the Ukek heritage is important for understanding the cultural and historical processes in the Volga region that facilitated academic links between this region and Europe.

As powerful economic and cultural centers, fortified sites played an important role in early medieval society. In Central Europe, early medieval fortified site research has been an essential topic for several generations. However, gradual changes in the landscape are a threat to these cultural heritage monuments. The main task of this paper was to compare the previous results from archaeological excavations with new data acquired by geophysical methods. The presented study is based on the three methods widely used in archaeology: magnetometry, ground-penetrating radar, and electrical resistivity tomography. New surveys provide information about the internal structure and the state of preservation of the fortifications in a non-destructive way. Comparison of the results encourages the evaluation of archaeological excavation and helps determine the suitability and effectiveness of geophysical methods in specific natural conditions.

The paper summarizes the geodetic contribution for the Slovak team within the joint Polish-Slovak archaeological mission at Tell el-Retaba in Egypt. Surveying work at archaeological excavations is usually influenced by somewhat specific subject of study and extreme conditions, especially at the missions in the developing countries. The case study describes spatial data development according to the archaeological conventions in order to document spatial relationships between the objects in excavated trenches. The long-term sustainability of surveying work at the site has been ensured by detailed metadata recording. Except the trench mapping, Digital Elevation Model has been calculated for the study area and for the north-eastern part of the site, with promising preliminary results for further detection and modelling of archaeological structures. In general, topographic mapping together with modern technologies like Photogrammetry, Satellite Imagery, and Remote Sensing provide valuable data sources for spatial and statistical modelling of the sites; and the results offer a different perspective for the archaeological research.

Geophysical prospection and small-scale archaeological excavation were undertaken on the site of Kaštelina, a Late Iron Age hillfort settlement located on the Stolac promontory in the northern part of Rab island (Kvarner Gulf, Croatia). Within the frame of the "Archaeological topography of the island of Rab" program, a Polish--Croatian team applied a series of multidisciplinary methods to study the occupational history of the site, its preservation, the nature of selected site features and future research potential. Ground-penetrating radar and magnetometer surveys, combined with the implementation of the Amplitude Data Comparison (ADC) method, led to the detection of remains of Late Iron Age building structures distributed over the northwestern side of the Stolac promontory. Archaeological excavations verifying the findings of the geophysical survey resulted in the discovery of a dwelling with associated outdoor features. A preliminary assessment of the outcome of a multidisciplinary approach to the study of the site of Kaštelina emphasizes the importance of the collected data for a general understanding of Late Iron Age settlements and their internal organisation in a wider context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For the past decade, debates on the earliest evidence of bifacial shaping in Western Europe have focused on several key issues, such as its origin (i.e., local or introduced), or on what should define the Acheulean culture. Whatever hypotheses are proposed for its origin, the onset and technological strategies for making Large Cutting Tools (LCTs), including biface production, are key issues and are often associated with other behavioural changes, such as increased core technology complexity. Current archaeological patterns do not support the existence of transitional industries. Rather, the scant evidence suggests that biface production associated with the management of bifacial volume was widespread around 700 ka. Among the earliest sites, the site of Notarchirico in Southern Italy stands out as one of the most significant examples. 40Ar/39Ar ages and ESR dates recently provided a revised chronology for the whole sedimentary sequence and constrained the archaeological levels between ca. 610 and 670 ka. Five archaeosurfaces (A, A1, B, D and F) yielded LCTs, including bifaces, during Marcello Piperno’s excavations from 1980 to 1995. In light of this new chronological framework, which is much shorter than previously thought, we propose in this contribution a revision of the bifaces by applying the “chaine opératoire” method for the first time (analysis of reduction processes). Our goals are to assess biface production in this early Western European locality and to characterize the strategies applied at the site throughout the sequence. A corpus of 32 tools was selected from the A-A1, B, D and F archaeosurfaces. The technological analysis shows that hominins had the capacity to manage bifacial volumes, when raw material quality was adequate. Clear differences do not emerge between the different levels in terms of shaping modes or final forms. However, we demonstrate that the oldest level (level F), with the richest corpus, lacks flint and displays a higher diversity of bifaces. This ability to manage bifacial and bilateral equilibrium, as well as the diversity of the morphological results, is observed in a few penecontemporaneous sites (700–600 ka), both in the north-western and southern parts of Western Europe. These patterns suggest that hominins mastered well-controlled and diversified biface production, combining intense shaping and minimal shaping, and shared a common technological background regardless of the geographical area, and applied this technology regardless of the available raw materials. The degree of skill complexity of hominins in Western Europe between 700 and 600 ka, the current lack of evidence suggesting “gradual industries” between core-and-flake series and Acheulean techno-complexes, raise numerous questions on the origin of new behaviours in Western Europe, their mode of diffusion, and their association with Homo heidelbergensis or other Middle Pleistocene populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the punctuated equilibrium model has been employed in paleontological and archaeological research, it has rarely been applied for technological and social evolution in the Holocene. Using metallurgical technologies from the Wadi Arabah (Jordan/Israel) as a case study, we demonstrate a gradual technological development (13th-10th c. BCE) followed by a human agency-triggered punctuated “leap” (late-10th c. BCE) simultaneously across the entire region (an area of ~2000 km2). Here, we present an unparalleled, diachronic archaeometallurgical dataset focusing on elemental analysis of dozens of well-dated slag samples. Based on the results, we suggest punctuated equilibrium provides an innovative theoretical model for exploring ancient technological changes in relation to larger sociopolitical conditions—in the case at hand the emergence of biblical Edom–, exemplifying its potential for more general cross-cultural applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the last two decades, much of the recent efforts dedicated to the Levantine Middle Paleolithic has concentrated on the role of open-air sites in the settlement system in the region. Here focus on the site of ‘Ein Qashish as a cases study. Located in present-day northern Israel, the area of this site is estimated to have been >1300 m2, of which ca. 670 were excavated. The site is located at the confluence of the Qishon stream with a small tributary running off the eastern flanks of the Mt. Carmel. At the area of this confluence, water channels and alluvial deposits created a dynamic depositional environment. Four Archaeological Units were identified in a 4.5-m thick stratigraphic sequence were dated by Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) to between—71 and 54 ka, and probably shorter time span–~70-~60 ka. Here we present the diverse material culture remains from the site (lithics, including refitted sequences; modified limestone pieces; molluscs; faunal remains) against their changing paleogeographic backdrop. Skeletal evidence suggests that these remains were associated with Neanderthals. The large-scale repeated accumulation of late Middle Paleolithic remains in the same place on the landscape provides a unique opportunity to address questions of occupation duration and intensity in open-air sites. We find that each occupation was of ephemeral nature, yet presents a range of activities, suggesting that the locale has been used as a generalized residential site rather than specialized task-specific ones. This role of ‘Ein Qashish did not change through time, suggesting that during the late Middle Paleolithic settlement system in this part of the southern Levant were stable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Anduli: Revista Andaluza de Ciencias Sociales is the property of Anduli: Revista Andaluza de Ciencias Sociales and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The onset of the Iron Age underwent manifold disruptions. The emergence of long-lasting nucleated villages in Iberia c. 900/800 BC best encapsulates such profound changes. This paper draws on the results of excavations over the last few decades at a fortified tell-like settlement in central Iberia: Cerro de San Vicente (Spain). The article focuses on formation dynamics in earth architecture to understand the role of cultural choices in the genesis of these sites. The occurrence of sophisticated lifestyles and novel cultural expressions in this village (avant-garde devices such as a drain pipe, unprecedented building techniques, exotic imports and alien practices) suggests the plausible role of inter-regional migration in their adoption. The appraisal of intra-site spatial ar­rangements sheds fresh light upon the diachronic social trajectories of these agrarian communities, from a seemingly egalitarian organisation to an increasingly ranked one.

Although the application of LiDAR has made significant contributions to archaeology, LiDAR only provides a synchronic view of the current topography. An important challenge for researchers is to extract diachronic information over typically extensive LiDAR-surveyed areas in an efficient manner. By applying an architectural chronology obtained from intensive excavations at the site center and by complementing it with surface collection and test excavations in peripheral zones, we analyze LiDAR data over an area of 470 km2 to trace social changes through time in the Ceibal region, Guatemala, of the Maya lowlands. We refine estimates of structure counts and populations by applying commission and omission error rates calculated from the results of ground-truthing. Although the results of our study need to be tested and refined with additional research in the future, they provide an initial understanding of social processes over a wide area. Ceibal appears to have served as the only ceremonial complex in the region during the transition to sedentism at the beginning of the Middle Preclassic period (c. 1000 BC). As a more sedentary way of life was accepted during the late part of the Middle Preclassic period and the initial Late Preclassic period (600–300 BC), more ceremonial assemblages were constructed outside the Ceibal center, possibly symbolizing the local groups’ claim to surrounding agricultural lands. From the middle Late Preclassic to the initial Early Classic period (300 BC-AD 300), a significant number of pyramidal complexes were probably built. Their high concentration in the Ceibal center probably reflects increasing political centralization. After a demographic decline during the rest of the Early Classic period, the population in the Ceibal region reached the highest level during the Late and Terminal Classic periods, when dynastic rule was well established (AD 600–950). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An insufficient number of archaeological surveys has been carried out to date on Harappan Civilization cemeteries. One case in point is the necropolis at Rakhigarhi site (Haryana, India), one of the largest cities of the Harappan Civilization, where most burials within the cemetery remained uninvestigated. Over the course of the past three seasons (2013 to 2016), we therefore conducted excavations in an attempt to remedy this data shortfall. In brief, we found different kinds of graves co-existing within the Rakhigarhi cemetery in varying proportions. Primary interment was most common, followed by the use of secondary, symbolic, and unused (empty) graves. Within the first category, the atypical burials appear to have been elaborately prepared. Prone-positioned internments also attracted our attention. Since those individuals are not likely to have been social deviants, it is necessary to reconsider our pre-conceptions about such prone-position burials in archaeology, at least in the context of the Harappan Civilization. The data presented in this report, albeit insufficient to provide a complete understanding of Harappan Civilization cemeteries, nevertheless does present new and significant information on the mortuary practices and anthropological features at that time. Indeed, the range of different kinds of burials at the Rakhigarhi cemetery do appear indicative of the differences in mortuary rituals seen within Harappan societies, therefore providing a vivid glimpse of how these people respected their dead. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We use stone tool refitting to assess palimpsest formation and stratigraphic integrity in the basal units of the Gruta da Oliveira archeo-stratigraphic sequence, layers 15–27, which TL and U-series dating places in late Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5 or early MIS 4. As in most karst contexts, the formation of this succession involved multiple and complex phenomena, including subsidence, bioturbation, carnivore activity and runoff as agents of potential post-depositional disturbance. During phases of stabilization, such as represented by layers 15, 21 and 22, the excavated area was inhabited and refits corroborate that post-depositional displacement is negligible. Layers 23–25 and 16–19 correspond to subdivisions that slice thick geological units primarily formed of material derived from the cave’s entrance via slope dynamics. Refit links are consistent with rapid fill-up of the interstitial spaces found in the Karren-like bedrock (for layers 23–25), or left between large boulders after major roof-collapse events (for layers 16–19). Layers 26 (the “Mousterian Cone”) and 27 are a “bottom-of-hourglass” deposit underlying the main sedimentary body; the refits show that this deposit consists of material derived from layers 15–25 that gravitated through fissures open in the sedimentary column above. Layer 20, at the interface between two major stratigraphic ensembles, requires additional analysis. Throughout, we found significant vertical dispersion along the contact between sedimentary fill and cave wall. Given these findings, a preliminary analysis of technological change across the studied sequence organized the lithic assemblages into five ensembles: layer 15; layers 16–19; layer 20; layers 21–22; layers 23–25. The lower ensembles show higher percentages of flint and of the Levallois method. Uniquely at the site, the two upper ensembles feature bifaces and cleavers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cut-marked and broken human bones are a recurrent feature of Magdalenian (~17–12,000 years BP, uncalibrated dates) European sites. Human remains at Gough’s Cave (UK) have been modified as part of a Magdalenian mortuary ritual that combined the intensive processing of entire corpses to extract edible tissues and the modification of skulls to produce skull-cups. A human radius from Gough’s Cave shows evidence of cut marks, percussion damage and human tooth marks, indicative of cannibalism, as well as a set of unusual zig-zagging incisions on the lateral side of the diaphysis. These latter incisions cannot be unambiguously associated with filleting of muscles. We compared the macro- and micro-morphological characteristics of these marks to over 300 filleting marks on human and non-human remains and to approximately 120 engraved incisions observed on two artefacts from Gough’s Cave. The new macro- and micro-morphometric analyses of the marks, as well as further comparisons with French Middle Magdalenian engraved artefacts, suggest that these modifications are the result of intentional engraving. The engraved motif comfortably fits within a Magdalenian pattern of design; what is exceptional in this case, however, is the choice of raw material (human bone) and the cannibalistic context in which it was produced. The sequence of the manipulations suggests that the engraving was a purposeful component of the cannibalistic practice, implying a complex ritualistic funerary behaviour that has never before been recognized for the Palaeolithic period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is significant archaeological evidence marking the collapse of the Shijiahe culture in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River in China during the late Neolithic Period. However, the causes for this cultural collapse remain unclear. Our sedimentary records from a 3.3 m long profile and 76 phytolith and charcoal samples from the Tanjialing archaeological sites provide records of interactions between an ancient culture and vegetation change. During the early Shijiahe culture (c, 4850–4400 cal BP), the climate was warm and humid. Fire was intensively used to clear the vegetation. In the mid-period of the Shijiahe culture (c, 4400–4200 cal BP), the climate became slightly dry-cold and this was accompanied by decreasing water, leading to settlements. From c, 4200 cal BP, severe drought eroded the economic foundation of rice-cultivation. These conditions forced people to abandon the Shijiahe ancient city to find water in other regions, leading to the collapse of the Shijiahe culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research investigates the prevalence of human osteoarthritis at Yinxu, the last capital of the Late Shang dynasty (ca. 1250–1046 B.C.), to gain insights about lifeways of early urban populations in ancient China. A total of 167 skeletal remains from two sites (Xiaomintun and Xin’anzhuang) were analyzed to examine osteoarthritis at eight appendicular joints and through three spinal osseous indicators. High osteoarthritis frequencies were found in the remains with males showing significantly higher osteoarthritis on the upper body (compared to that of the females). This distinctive pattern becomes more obvious for males from Xiaomintun. Furthermore, Xiaomintun people showed significantly higher osteoarthritis in both sexes than those from Xin’anzhuang. Higher upper body osteoarthritis is speculated to be caused by repetitive lifting and carrying heavy-weight objects, disproportionately adding more stress and thus more osseous changes to the upper than the lower body. Such lifting-carrying could be derived from intensified physical activities in general and specialized occupations in particular. Higher osteoarthritis in males may reveal a gendered division of labour, with higher osteoarthritis in Xiaomintun strongly indicating an occupational difference between the two sites. The latter speculation can be supported by the recovery of substantially more bronze-casting artifacts in Xiaomintun. It is also intriguing that relatively higher osteoarthritis was noticed in Xiaomintun females, which seems to suggest that those women might have also participated in bronze-casting activities as a “family business.” Such a family-involved occupation, if it existed, may have contributed to establishment of occupation-oriented neighborhoods as proposed by many Shang archaeologists. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Casting had symbolic significance and was strictly controlled in the Shang dynasty of ancient China. Vessel casting was mainly distributed around the Shang capital, Yin Ruins, which indicates a rigorous centralization of authority. Thus, for a casting mold to be excavated far from the capital region is rare. In addition to some bronze vessel molds excavated at the Buyao Village site, another key discovery of a bronze vessel mold occurred at Daxinzhuang. The Daxinzhuang site was a core area in the east of Shang state and is an important site to study the eastward expansion of the Shang. Here, combining synchrotron X-rays and other physicochemical analysis methods, nondestructive three-dimensional structure imaging and different elemental analyses were conducted on this mold sherd. Through high penetration X-ray tomography, we obtained insights on the internal structure and discovered some pores. We infer that the generation of pores inside the casting mold sherd was used to enhance air permeability during casting. Furthermore, we suppose that the decorative patterns on the surface were carved and not pasted onto it. Considering the previous compositional studies of bronze vessels, the copper and iron elements were analyzed by different methods. Unexpectedly, a larger amount of iron than of copper was detected on the surface. According to the data analysis and archaeological context, the source of iron on the casting mold sherd could be attributed to local soil contamination. A refined compositional analysis confirms that this casting mold was fabricated locally and used for bronze casting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Intermediate Bronze Age (IB) in the Southern Levant (ca. 2350–2000 BCE) is known as the “Dark Ages,” following the collapse of Early Bronze urban society and predating the establishment of the Middle Bronze cities. The absence of significant settlements and monumental building has led to the reconstruction of IB social organization as that of nomadic, tribal society inhabiting rural villages with no central governmental system. Excavation in the Shamir Dolmen Field (comprising over 400 dolmens) on the western foothills of the Golan Heights was carried out following the discovery of rock art engravings on the ceiling of the central chamber inside one of the largest dolmens ever recorded in the Levant. Excavation of this multi-chambered dolmen, covered by a basalt capstone weighing some 50 tons, revealed a secondary multi-burial (of both adults and children) rarely described in a dolmen context in the Golan. Engraved into the rock ceiling above the multi-burial is a panel of 14 forms composed of a vertical line and downturned arc motif. 3D-scanning by structured-light technology was used to sharpen the forms and revealed the technique employed to create them. Building of the Shamir dolmens required a tremendous amount of labor, architectural mastery, and complex socio-economic organization well beyond the capacity of small, rural nomadic groups. The monumental megalithic burial of the Shamir dolmens indicates a hierarchical, complex, non-urban governmental system. This new evidence supports a growing body of recent criticism stemming from new discoveries and approaches that calls for rethinking our views of the Levantine IB “Dark Ages.” [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dramatic deterioration of Hellenistic-Roman limestone remains recently excavated at Dülük Baba Tepesi (Southern Turkey) has been observed following the cold, wet winter of 2011/2012. A conceptual model is presented to explain the dramatic deterioration in which case hardening develops and initially strengthens the stone against deterioration, but then makes it more prone to exfoliation and blistering. Data collected using non-destructive techniques (Equotip surface hardness tester and Karsten tube for water uptake) on Fırat and Gaziantep formation limestone time series excavated in 2005, 2007, and 2013 demonstrates the progress of case hardening and deterioration after excavation. In combination with meteorological data from Gaziantep weather station the results are used to test and revise the model taking into account non-linear and threshold effects. Future excavation and conservation efforts should take into account the often-complex interactions between post-excavation case hardening and extreme winter conditions which can cause catastrophic deterioration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]