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The diversity of life forms is one of the greatest wonders of the planet earth. The biosphere is an intricate tapestry of interwoven life forms. This book offers an overall view of this biological diversity and carries an urgent warning about the rapid alteration and destruction of the environments that have fostered the diversity of life forms for more than a billion years. The source of this book is the National Forum on BioDiversity, held in Washington, D.C., on September 21-24, 1986, under the auspices of the National Academy of Sciences and the Smithsonian Institution. The forum featured more than 60 leading biologists, economists, agricultural experts, philosophers, representatives of assistance and lending agencies, and other professionals. Included in this book are 57 papers presented at the forum. Topics include: (1) "The Current State of Biological Diversity"; (2) "Challenges to the Preservation of Biodiversity"; (3) "Human Dependence on Biological Diversity"; (4) "Diversity at Risk: Tropical Forests"; (5) "Diversity at Risk: The Global Perspective"; (6) "The Value of Biodiversity"; (7) "How is Biodiversity Monitored and Protected?"; (8) "Science and Technology: How Can They Help?"; (9) "Restoration Ecology: Can We Recover Lost Ground?"; (10) "Alternatives to Destruction"; (11) "Policies to Protect Diversity"; (12) "Present Problems and Future Prospects"; (13) "Ways of Seeing the Biosphere"; and (14) "Epilogue." (CW)

Urban agriculture has a definite role in food security in cities. This paper will explore the extent to which urban agriculture contributes to food security in cities with examples from different parts of the world. The paper will explore the potential of urban agriculture in biodiversity conservation in urban and peri-urban areas, its role in reducing the carbon footprint of agriculture, urban food needs and generation of organic waste. The potential for urban agriculture in securing carbon credits for cities will also be explored here. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China has 92 described species of hypogean (cave and artesian) fishes. That is nearly one third of all the described hypogean fish species (299), more than any other country. Of all Chinese hypogean fishes 56 species show troglomorphisms, i.e., adaptations that have been correlated to the hypogean environment such as reduction and/or loss of eyes, pigmentation, and the gas bladder. Additionally, two other characters seem to be unique to some Chinese hypogean species: presence of a horn-like structure and hyperdevelopment of the dorsal protuberance similar to a humpback. Despite the fact that the first written account of a cave fish was for species found in China in 1540 (Romero 2001; and Introduction to this special volume), almost all the new descriptions have taken place in the last 20 years mostly in papers written in Chinese and/or in journals of difficult access outside China. This paper summarizes all the knowledge we have on the hypogean fishes of China and puts them in context regarding all the hypogean fishes in the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is an attempt to outline a protocol for animal diversity census and evaluation aimed for areas in view of landscape planning of territories of hundred square kilometres and more, that may work utilising different faunal groups and be anyway useful at various scales. Many papers are addressed to elaborate tools for landscape planning starting from biodiversity evaluation and butterflies are often utilised because of their sensitivity to landscape modifications. In this work, the biodiversity evaluation has been performed using three hierarchically linked landscape units at micro-, meso- and macroscale. Being species diversity values often inadequate to define the conservation interest of a landscape portion, more importance has been given to which species compose the species assemblages. A community vulnerability Index was coded and used for evaluating potential consequences of human disturbance on butterfly assemblages. Forty-four year samples were gained by visual census in the Sila Greca, Southern Italy, on an area of approximately 520 square kilometres. During 5 years work, 2,535 specimens and 94 species were recorded, equal to 75.8% of the whole Calabrian fauna. Four vulnerability levels have been established and used for mapping butterfly assemblage vulnerability in the area, starting from a vegetation map. Species richness was found somewhat contradictory at micro-scale, where the community vulnerability Index gives a sounder approach. S diversity gives a more reliable picture of naturalness at meso-scale, a level we identified with the "ecotope". At this more "geomorphic" scale level, biological functions reflected by butterfly assemblages revealed to be clearly linked to seral processes. Similarity analysis results show that the ecotope species richness, here called "eta-diversity", could be an useful measure of zoological landscape (faunation) potentialities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the social and cultural processes through which conservation policy is derived. Focusing on the management of pinewoods in Abernethy Forest, Scotland, it explores the cultural politics involved in developing appropriate management practice. Calling upon participant observation, semi-structured interviews with site managers and the analysis of texts, it traces the gradual moves from a policy of minimum intervention towards more complex management regimes. The paper explores the social construction of the forest's naturalness that underpinned the early policy of minimum intervention and then the ways that the forest was reconstructed as the managers debated the merits of minimum intervention and the degree to which they should intervene. The paper illustrates how managers have considered different forms of intervention and how they have tried to balance their concern with the naturalness of the forest with a need to intervene on behalf of particularly important species. It highlights the importance of conservationists' culturally derived understandings of nature and suggests that an awareness of these cultures of nature is vital if conservationists are to develop robust policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper variability refers to the range of values between particular climate maxima and minima over a period of time (Mitchell 1976). Atmospheric variability in space and time can significantly alter the response of the ecosystem. For instance, comprehensive studies emphasise notable relations of reproduction phenology to climate in tropical rain forests (e.g. Hamann 2004). Three types of relevant spatiotemporal heterogeneities are dicussed in this chapter: Long-term and quasi-periodic oscillations of meteorological conditionsSeasonal changes of selected meteorological parameters (clouds and precipitation), as a supplement to information already presented in Chapter 8The diurnal course of rainfall [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The wildlife of the Brazilian Cerrado is threatened by large-scale habitat loss, in particular due to conversion to agricultural land. It is essential to study how the mammal fauna copes with the highly fragmented, human-influenced, non-protected landscape. The paper presents the results of a survey of the large to medium-sized mammals of a typical cattle ranch with a mixture of human-created and natural vegetation types. We recorded 18 species. Surprisingly, several species were found to still thrive in the area, however, many species are rare or have become extinct. We conclude the paper with comments relevant for the conservation of mammals in the Cerrado as a whole. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Starting from the premise that any field requires knowledge of the ideas of its predecessors, this paper points out the contributions of three generations of representatives of the Cluj School to nature conservation. Thus, the careers of A. Borza and E. Racoviþă, who laid the theoretical and practical foundations of this movement, are presented; then, the difficult mission incumbent on E. Pop under the communist regime is emphasized; and the paper ends with N. Boşcaiu, their disciple, who at the impressive age of 80 still ennobles us with his rich experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aspects on biodiversity and conservation of the ichthyofauna in the Asian region, in comparison to that of Africa, Europe and North America have been relatively less documented. This paper attempts to evaluate the above aspects in the East, and South and Southeast Asia based on available information in the literature. The familial diversity in inland waters in Asia (121 families) is considerably higher than in African and Latin American. Also, the finfish faunal diversity of 21 major river basins in East, and South and Southeast Asian indicate that species diversity is not necessarily related to familial diversity. The fish fauna in the region considered presently is highly diverse with an estimated cumulative total of 7447 species. Amongst the freshwater fishes the dominant groups are cyprinids (Cyprinidae, about 1000 species), loaches (about 400 species) of the families Balitoridae and Cobitiidae, gobids (Gobiidae, 300 species), catfishes (Bagridae, about 100 species), and the Osphronemidae (85 species). In the region, 462 freshwater finfish species are reckoned to be threatened, accounting for 17.5% of the all finfish species in this status in the world. In the region there are 66 species that are critically endangered and/or endangered, of which 32 are cyprinids, 14 of which are endemic to Lake Lanao, Mindano Island, Philippines. The diversity of freshwater fish species in the region was significantly related to the land area of the different countries in the following manner: $$ \begin{gathered} ln (species ratio) = ln 0.384 (land area in km^2 ) + 0.651(R^2 = 0.628; \hfill \\ p < 0.001). \hfill \\ \end{gathered} $$ In addition, the fish species diversity in the major river basins of the region was also found to be positively related to the basin area: $$ \begin{gathered} ln (Species richness index) = - 0.789 ln (Area) + 9.368(R^2 = 0.748; \hfill \\ p < 0.001). \hfill \\ \end{gathered} $$ Based on above relationship, the predicted fish species richness did not necessarily correlate to river basin size, and rivers with small basins were shown to have high indices. The paper also attempts to evaluate the reasons affecting fish species diversity in the region and suggests mitigating measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Paradigms for land and water management are on the move. New approaches are said to be, or meant to be, more ‘participatory', ‘integrated', ‘adaptive', ‘ecosystem-based' and so on. The present paper explores emergent principles for land and water management in ecological management theory, environmental science and the social sciences. These principles comprise adaptive management, opportunity-driven analysis, visions of managers and the public, and co-management that includes local and supra-local rationality. The paper concludes that for river management, these principles largely reinforce each other. This lays a basis for a style of river management in which the river managers may continue to be the guardians of science-based and whole-basin rationality, while at the same time interacting more successfully with society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As environmental scientists, advocates and managers we have an obligation to lead efforts to conserve biodiversity, but for freshwater species and habitats we are failing thus far. Increasing global demand for water, irrigated agricultural products and hydroelectricity are exacerbating the threats to freshwater biodiversity. Not only does climate change threaten to change the hydrology of freshwater habitats, but the adaptations proposed by governments and others for greater hydroelectricity generation and increased water storage would further exacerbate the impact on freshwater ecosystems. This chapter has briefly examined large-scale mechanisms for wetlands conservation based on: ecoregion prioritisation and vision setting, integrated river basin management, poverty reduction, multilateral treaties, regional collaboration between countries and target-driven work by a non-government organisation. These methods show some promise but also highlight the complexity of this task and long term investments required to establish sustainable freshwater conservation initiatives. The paper also highlights the need for wetland conservation advocates to build partnerships and capacities to meet the social and economic needs of local communities to sustain wetlands conservation. This paper contends that large-scale planning and strategic interventions at the river basin, national and regional scale are needed to conserve the ecological processes — the hydrological regime in particular — required to sustain wetlands to the degree that the societies concerned choose. Perhaps our greatest challenge is to reach out and engage the many sectors of our societies that need to be part of these large-scale solutions and help them choose for wetlands conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we discuss experiences of applying Computer Science research in five biodiversity informatics projects. The need that these projects share in common is to apply advanced computing theory and techniques to real problems, overcoming the practical difficulties that are encountered. The main purpose of this paper is to illustrate, from our own experience, how applying advanced computing techniques to a real problem area can lead to unexpected difficulties that may not have been recognised at the theoretical or small-scale implementation stage, and to provide some recommendations for addressing the specific difficulties identified here. These recommendations are in the areas of identifying and rectifying terminological conflicts; handling multiple opinions; and design of architectures that can accommodate variation in platforms and administrative policies, and also accommodate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this paper is to explore the relationships between environmental heterogeneities and the flows and movements that suffuse through all environments. Flows and movements are treated as propagations of ecological influence through environmental space. Propagations are composed of four elements: (1) initiating events or conditions, (2) transport vectors, (3) transported entities, and (4) deposition or impact processes. All four elements have multiple dimensions in type and scale, but vectors are the most convenient means of discussing these phenomena. At a medial level of causation, 10 major vectors are convenient descriptors. These vectors are molecular diffusion; transport by fluvial, colluvial, or glacial modes, gravitational sedimentation, currents (tidal and extratidal), wind (with fire as a special case) agencies; and by electromagnetic radiation, sound, and animal locomotion. Obviously, each of these vector types has different behavior. Propagations can be initiated, or modified by, environmental heterogeneities. But also, propagations can create, maintain, and destroy heterogeneities. Thus, reciprocal cause and effect relationships exist between propagations and environmental heterogeneities. Analysis and understanding of these reciprocal interactions between propagations and heterogeneities requires some understanding of the mechanics of propagations, whether they involve wind, waves, or wallabies. In the same sense, analysis and understanding of how environmental heterogeneities alter propagations requires an appreciation for the global range of heterogeneity types, whether they are ripples, runnels, or run-on patches. Spatially explicit two- and three-dimensional models of propagations in heterogeneous environments are useful ways to develop understanding and, with caveats, to predict how processes and patterns interact. Some of the representational issues of building such models are reviewed in this paper, and three model examples are described. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper was read as a plenary lecture during the 5th ZFMK International Symposium on Tropical Biology ("African Biodiversity") to commemorate the scientific life and legacy of Professor Martin Eisentraut, who was director of ZFMK from 1957 - with two years interruption - to 1977. The paper is aimed to show appreciation to his many scientific achievements in vertebrate zoology by giving an outline of his career, which focussed on the exploration of Central African, particularly Cameroonian vertebrates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of current gaps of and challenges for LCA structured into inventory, impact assessment, generic and evolving aspects. A total of 34 gaps and challenges were identified. These include challenges like `allocation', `uncertainty' or `biodiversity', as well as issues like `littering', `animal well-being' or `positive impacts' which are not covered as often in the existing LCA literature. Each of these gaps is described by a high-level overview of the topic and its relevance to LCA, and the state of the art in terms of literature and potential solutions, if any, is presented. The motivation for such an overview is two-fold: First, robust, sustainable and credible use of LCA should avoid the over-interpretation of LCA results without proper consideration of its gaps and limitations. Second, these gaps and challenges represent research needs for the scientific LCA community and hopefully inspire further progress in method development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over 1.02 billion people in the world suffer from hunger today. Securing world food security in light of the impact of climate change may be one of the biggest challenges we face in this century. Agriculture is extremely vulnerable to climate change. Rising temperatures, more intense droughts, floods, and greater weather variability all mean productivity losses to crops and livestock. Greater numbers of crop failures, livestock deaths, forest fires, damage to fishery infrastructure are already imposing economic losses and undermining food security. The overall impacts of climate change on agriculture are expected to be negative, threatening global food security. Impacts of climate change can influence the whole food supply chain and all four dimensions of food security, namely: availability of food from domestic -production and imports, access to resources for producing or buying food, stability of food supply, both ecological and macroeconomic, utilization of food, including consumer preferences and safety of water and food. The poor will be disproportionably vulnerable to the effects of climate change because of their greatest dependence on agriculture and their lower ability to adapt. In parallel, growing energy demand is adding additional string and could compete with food security objectives. The importance of addressing the question of how to increase the resilience of present food production systems to challenges posed by climate change is widely recognized. As importance to bioenergy is growing, the challenges and -opportunities posed by biofuels, in view of the world΄s food security, energy and sustainable development needs to be addressed. In this paper the key challenges of climate change and bioenergy on food security is discussed together with potential -adaptation and mitigation options and relevant policy priorities elaborated. The key messages from the FAO΄s high level conference on ˵World Food Security: The Challenges of Climate Change and Bioenergy″ is presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

European scientific research and development organizations, operating in the domains of biology, ecology, and biodiversity, strongly need to cooperate/collaborate with other centers. Unavailability of interoperation infrastructure as well as the needed collaboration environment among research organizations restricts their exchange of research results and efficient launching of co-working/co-development R&D initiatives. This paper proposes the pre-establishment of a long term strategic Collaborative Network called BTCN (Breeding environment for Temporary Collaborative Networks) for these organizations based on a survey of this environment. BTCN supports in a cost/time effective manner the formation and creation of potential future collaboration sub-networks addressing different R&D opportunities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper the results of the comparative study carried out in two countries members of the EU are presented. These countries, respectively Austria and Romania have adhered to the European Union in 1995, respectively in 2007. Four sets of questions have been elaborated, each set containing 20 questions, which were answered by different categories of education. The questions followed the main environmental problems and aspects regarding the administration organizations specialized or qualified for administration of environment problems. The distribution of the sets of questions was carried out with the direct involvement of the youth organizations and of volunteers from the neighborhood organizations. The analyses of the results were first considered separately for each group of subjects and then perceptual analyses were carried out on the correct answers. The comparison of the data obtained using the subjects of the two countries has emphasized a similar interest and a comparable level of knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aims of this paper were to study the genetic diversity within and among 6 Tuber taxa, the phylogenetic relationships and the spatial distribution of truffles from the Basilicata region (southern Italy). Molecular analyses, using the internal transcribed spacer region, microsatellites, minisatellites and random amplified polymorphic loci revealed the highest expected intra-specific heterozygosity (He=0.30) in T. aestivum, followed by that of T. mesentericum (He=0.22). T. borchii (He=0.17), T. magnatum (He=0.16), T. aestivum fo. uncinatum (He=0.12) and T. brumale fo. moschatum (He=0.09) showed a lower average heterozygosity. The whole set of markers were demonstrated to be useful in clearly differentiating Tuber taxa, separating them in two distinct groups and in five sub-clusters, each corresponding to one single taxon. The first cluster (T. borchii, T. magnatum and T. brumale fo. moschatum) was more differentiated than the second one (T. aestivum, T. aestivum fo. uncinatum and T. mesentericum). T. brumale fo. moschatum was the most differentiated Tuber taxon. It was more related to the white truffles (the closely related T. borchii and T. magnatum) than to the remaining related black truffles T. aestivum and T. mesentericum. The amount of Tuber species richness was higher over the western side of Basilicata, in cold Lauretum and in Castanetum phytoclimatic Pavari's zones. A spatial genetic structure was detected for T. aestivum, as shown by the significant correlation between geographic and genetic distances (rs=0.32; P<0.0001). Integration of molecular and geographic diversity patterns can allow the selection of sites for Tuber and Tuber-related biodiversity conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on the analysis and evaluation of resilience anchored in an economic perspective. Resilience, as well as most of the benefits provided by ecosystems, is not priced on current markets. However, this does not mean that resilience is of no value for humans. On the contrary, the interest of using an economic perspective, and the respective scientific methodology, will be put forward in terms of resilience relevance for ecosystem functioning, and its impact on human welfare. The economic perspective is anchored in an anthropocentric analysis evaluating resilience in terms of provision of natural capital benefits. These in turn are interpreted as insurance against the risk of ecosystem malfunctioning and the consequent interruption of the provision of goods and services to humans. For this analysis, we make use of a conceptual framework that identifies and describes the different value components of resilience. Finally, we present an illustration that discusses the economic analysis of resilience benefits in the context of the Venice Lagoon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper an updated distribution of the Iberian ibex (Capra pyrenaica, Schinz 1838) in the central Spanish region of Castile-La Mancha is shown. The species is present in 19% of the study region, and in areas not cited so far in the literature. A detailed analysis of habitat suitability was also carried out, applying a new methodology, Ecological-Niche Factor Analysis, which uses presence data to build a habitat suitability map of a given species. As livestock activity is quite intense in the region, the presence of a potential competitor, the domestic goat (Capra hircus), was included in the analyses. Factors affecting ibex relative abundance were determined by means of a nested stepwise multiple regression, where livestock presence/absence was the nested factor. The presence of livestock has a negative effect on ibex relative abundance, causing the ibex to select areas of poor, sparse vegetation, cultivated lands and forests, whereas in the absence of livestock, the ibex is mainly present in pasture-scrub lands and non-cultivated lands. Conservation implications of these results are discussed in the context of a Mediterranean region where extensive livestock grazing systems abound. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper I build on current research in urban and ecological simulation modeling to develop a conceptual framework for modeling the urban ecosystem. Although important progress has been made in various areas of urban modeling, operational urban models are still primitive in terms of their ability to represent ecological processes. On the other hand, environmental models designed to assess the ecological impact of an urban region are limited in their ability to represent human systems. I present here a strategy to integrate these two lines of research into an urban ecological model (UEM). This model addresses the human dimension of the Puget Sound regional integrated simulation model (PRISM)—a multidisciplinary initiative at the University of Washington aimed at developing a dynamic and integrated understanding of the environmental and human systems in the Puget Sound. UEM simulates the environmental pressures associated with human activities under alternative demographic, economic, policy, and environmental scenarios. The specific objectives of UEM are to: quantify the major sources of human-induced environmental stresses (such as land-cover changes and nutrient discharges); determine the spatial and temporal variability of human stressors in relation to changes in the biophysical structure; relate the biophysical impacts of these stressors to the variability and spatial heterogeneity in land uses, human activities, and management practices; and predict the changes in stressors in relation to changes in human factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The metropolitan area of Buenos Aires is located in the Rolling Pampa, one of the most productive ecoregions of the world (44,000 km2, 33°, S - 39°S). This region has undergone deep transformations caused by agricultural, residential, industrial and commercial land-uses. The purpose of this paper is to compare to what exient plant and avian richness is influenced by urban and agricultural uses. To capture the land-use effects a comparison between different sectors was made. Green spaces and farmland, located in areas of contrasting land-use, extending from the La Plata's river shore to semirural and rural areas, were sampled. Vascular plant richness, floristic composition and bird presence were considered. To compare the different sites, biodiversity indexes and Sorensen's coefficient of similarity were calculated and the percentage of forest, grassland, shrubland, wetland and rivers/streams was estimated. All collected data were correlated using Principal Components Analysis (PCA). In general, the decrease of native plants and bird richness towards the city centre is consistent with the studies of other cities. The results of the present study confirm that the actual cultivation practices are extremely more dangerous for conservation of native land than urban sprawl. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to understand the effect of urban development on the functioning of forest ecosystems during the past decade we have been studying red oak stands located on similar soil along an urban-rural gradient running from New York City ro rural Litchfield County, Connecticut. This paper summarizes the results of this work. Field measurements, controlled laboratory experiments, and reciprocal transplants documented soil pollution, soil hydrophobicity, litter decomposition rates, total soil carbon, potential nitrogen mineralization, nitrification, fungal biomass, and earthworm populations in forests along the 140 × 20 km study transect. The results revealed a complex urban-rural environmental gradient. The urban forests exhibit unique ecosystem structure and function in relation to the suburban and rural forest stands; these are likely linked to stresses of the urban environment such as air pollution, which has also resulted in elevated levels of heavy metals in the soil, the positive effects of the heat island phenomenon, and the presence of earthworms. The data suggest a working model to guide mechanistic work on the ecology of forests along urban-to-rural gradients, and for comparison of different metropolitan areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To judge sealing of soil and interventions in locations in the framework of city and water management planning, one needs quantitative data relating to soil properties, climate and water cycles. The assessment of substances is increasingly important, especially if impacts by emission, motor traffic or by abandoned polluted sites have to be considered. In Germany today sealed and built-up areas occupy a significant and increasing fraction of the surface area (>12 %). In this paper various methods to detect sealing are dealt with in detail. Different measurement techniques can give very different numbers about the degree of sealing. Sealing especially affects the natural water cycle. As a rule, sealing reduces actual evapotranspiration and increases surface runoff (canalizing). Sealing also strongly changes the urban heat balance: the higher the building density, the more heat buildup in summer. As compared with the surroundings, on extreme summer days the temperature may increase by ~2-3 K and the saturation deficit of air by ~10-20 %. Sealing of soil also destroys the habitats of fauna and flora. The remaining areas in the city become isolated and develop extreme local conditions. One usually finds a change of fauna and flora, and a shift of the species rank order of abundance. The increased pollutant load in urban spaces, plus the frequent concentration of rainwater into unsealed and partly sealed areas, often causes high pollutant concentrations in the topsoil and in the materials in joints or cracks sin the pavement. High contents of heavy metals in soil and litter may slow down the decomposition of litter, soil respiration, and mineralization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The central part of the Indo-West Pacific (IWP) harbours the highest marine biodiversity, but only few data of its origin are available. In this paper the Cenozoic records of large benthic foraminifera are reviewed. Since many groups need species level revision, the occurrences of genera were reviewed based on records from literature. It is acknowledged that using genus level data is susceptible to differences in interpretation between authors, but the observed patterns are tested against morphological disparity and the number of taxa observed in a single locality. The analyses show a longitudinal shift in diversity from the western Tethys in the Eocene to the central IWP in the Miocene and younger. Oligocene faunas were relatively homogenous between these two regions. During the Eocene radiation occurred in the western Tethys, and abundant and often stratigraphically long-ranging species migrated east and reached Indonesia. This pattern reversed from the Late Eocene onwards, continuing in the Oligocene, and especially the Miocene. However, although the same genera were observed in Oligocene deposits from the western and eastern Tethys lineages showing similar morphological trends evolved independently and at different rates in the two regions. The observed patterns compare very well with the availability of suitable habitat in shallow tropical seas, and are fine-tuned by environmental parameters such as temperature and nutrient availability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Total evidence scenarios for the origin of wide and disjunct distributions in two groups of flying insects, butterflies and parasitic wasps, are discussed, with emphasis on the possible role of the break-up of Gondwana. All six families of butterflies (Hesperiidae, Papilionidae, Pieridae, Lycaenidae, Riodinidae, and Nymphalidae) and two families of wasps (Stephanidae and Braconidae) have been examined for obvious disjunct distributions. The evidence for the impact of the fragmentation of Pangea and Gondwana on the global distribution of butterflies and both wasp families is considered to be weak. For the basal lineages of Braconidae, occupation of the niche of galls and "pseudogalls" (e.g., aphids) has been a more important driving force than vicariance. Obviously, dispersal and extinction played an important role before and after the break-up of the continents. They are integral parts of the evolution of life, ongoing processes, now and then punctuated by vicariance events, of which the traces will become obliterated with time. Dominance of vicariance events for the evolution of the families studied in this paper is considered unlikely. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus) is threatened by large-scale habitat loss, in particular due to conversion to agricultural land. This is the first published study on maned wolf density and the first test of individual identification from camera-trap photographs. We present results from two Brazilian regions: the Cerrado and the Pantanal. Using capture-recapture analysis of camera-trap data, we estimated densities per 100 square kilometers of 3.64 ± 0.77 individuals at the Cerrado site and 1.56 ± 0.77 individuals at the Pantanal site. Parallel radio-telemetry studies at the Pantanal site showed that maned wolves occupied home ranges of 39-58 km2 (mean = 50.3 ± 7.67 km2). Our study in the Cerrado took place in a private farm with a mixture of agricultural land and native habitats, representative of the majority of the present-day Cerrado. Whereas many other mammalian species have suffered in the region, our results show that the maned wolf may cope better with this highly fragmented landscape than one might have feared. Finally, the paper briefly compares maned wolf density with density of puma (Puma concolor) in the Pantanal site. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was designed to examine the entire species description process of limnoterrestrial tardigrades up until the present, and to establish the effects of several variables on this process. Information from monographs, revisions and published papers related to limnoterrestrial tardigrades was assessed using generalized linear models (GLM) and variance partition. Our findings reveal the tardigrade species description process fails to show an asymptotic tendency. That is, at the current description rate, we will not get to know all the species in the short- or mid-term. The variables examined served to explain about half of the process variance. Species distribution areas and variables related to their presence in each region were the factors found to have the greatest explanatory capacity. Our analysis indicates that insufficient efforts have been invested in the tardigrades compared to other invertebrates (such as Insecta: Coleoptera), and that there is a need for more taxonomists and more extensive sampling areas. Studies such as this will be useful for planning future species sampling campaigns, and help us to improve our methodological approach to investigations aimed at conservation and the preservation of biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing rates of declines in anuran populations worldwide are creating demands for urgent strategies to maximize conservation efforts. This may be critical in regions for which few detailed data on diversity, abundance and distribution are available, such as in the Cerrado of Central Brazil. In this paper, we used a macroecological approach based on the extent of occurrence of 131 species of Anura (Amphibia) in the Cerrado region to design a regional network of potential areas that preserves all anuran species. The final network, obtained using a simulation annealing algorithm based on complementarity, has a total of 17 cells, widely distributed throughout the biome. Minimum costs solutions were obtained in respect to total human population size, soybean production and bovine density, because these are the factors associated with human occupation that historically are more likely to cause broad scale habitat losses. The macro-scale approach used here can provide overall guidelines for conservation and define the focus for more local and effective conservation efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parrots are the most threatened group of birds in the world, mainly because of the reduction and fragmentation of their natural habitats. However, few studies have investigated the dynamics of parrot populations in disturbed landscapes on a broad scale. In this paper, we studied the ecological interactions of the vulnerable blue-winged macaw (Primolius maracana) in a fragmented landscape surrounding a large protected park in southeastern Brazil. We sampled 36 forest fragments that varied in size, characteristics, degree of isolation and type of surrounding matrix in order to assess the importance of habitat features on the maintenance of these birds. Blue-winged macaws were recorded in 70% of the satellite remnants that were sampled, which included large and small blocks of forest. These areas were used as sites for feeding, nesting or overnight rests, and also provided connectivity for birds' displacements. However, the frequency of macaw visits varied among the remnants, and this was related to habitat features such as patch size, human use of surrounding land, and the proximity to the protected park, to urban areas and to the birds' roosting areas. In general, landscape-scale parameters explained more of the variation in the frequency of visits by macaws than did patch-scale parameters. These results demonstrate the importance of landscape mosaics for the survival of blue-winged macaws. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the role of Mexico as importer, manufacturer, producer and distributor centre of reptile skins from non-native and native species, through a combination of documentary research and survey methods. A number of key findings were derived from this study. Although Mexico has adopted the "System for the Conservation, Management and Sustainable Use of Wildlife" (SUMA), the country still relies on reptile skins from non-native species. In contrast, the smaller numbers of skins used from native species mainly derive from captive breeding schemes that although biologically sustainable, provide no incentive for habitat conservation. Sustainable use of reptile skins from native species could positively encourage conservation in Mexico. However, as a megadiverse country with potential to produce wildlife, Mexico will have to implement an appropriate regulatory framework to support local communities to promote the sustainable use of native species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bacterial isolates from the rhizosphere soil and root cuttings of bush black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) (pepper raised by laterals) exhibiting high phosphate solubilizing ability in-vitro is described in this paper. Microbial phosphorus solubilization (MPS) trait was analyzed by determining the P solubilization efficiency E (E = Diameter of bacterial growth/Diameter of clearing zone×100). The highest P solubilization efficiency was demonstrated by the isolate PB-21 followed by the isolate PB-16: which was identified as Pseudomonas sp. All isolates under study released inorganic phosphate from tricalcium phosphate (TCP) indicating the potential of these strains to release soluble inorganic phosphates from fixed phosphate sources for plant uptake. The isolate PIAR6-2 was able to solubilize 20.01% of P and also fix atmospheric nitrogen, which was later identified as the nitrogen fixing Azospirillum sp. Greenhouse trials using two systems; viz; Soil:Terracare (composted coir pith) and Sand:Soil:FYM with three experimental sets such as rock phosphate (RP as an external P source), PSB isolate in combination with VAM and PSB isolate alone, all against their respective control sets showed very clearly the growth promoting activity of phosphate solubilizing bacteria. Field studies were also carried out using these isolates and some promising results were obtained. Further studies are required to analyze these strains to confirm its plant growth promoting properties. The in-vitro analyses and greenhouse studies of these bacteria reflect their potentiality as efficient P solubilizer in black pepper growing soils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Isotopic (32P) dilution approaches have been used to evaluate the extent at which inoculated phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi improve plant use of soil P sources of low bioavailability, either endogenous or added as rock phosphate (RP). This paper firstly examines the conceptual background, the main achievements and the state of the art on the related topics. Then, a model own experiment is described and discussed to offer a comprehensive view on the effects and mechanisms involved, and to propose the appropriate methodological approaches. Measurements of the specific activity (32P/31P) of P in plants grown in 32P-labelled soil, and the subsequent calculations of the amount of plant P derived from either the bio-available (isotopically labelled) soil sources or from the added RP, allow to conclude that the dually (AM + PSB)-inoculated plants were able to use otherwise unavailable P sources, resulting in an improvement of plant P acquisition. The proposed mechanism is that the inoculated PSB actually release phosphate ions (31P) from sparingly soluble phosphates, ions which are taken up by the external AM mycelium to be transferred to the plant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although phosphoric fertilizers will continue to play a major role in intensive agriculture, depletion of natural resources and long-term unsustainability necessitate alternative strategies be investigated and implemented to buffer against food insecurity and environmental degradation. Phosphorus is not a renewable resource and its future use in agriculture will be impacted by declining availability and increased cost. Moreover, the striking increase in the use of fertilizers by intensive agriculture practices has led to degradation of air and water quality. This paper offers an overview on the sources and production process of phosphate fertilizers, the sources of environmental contamination due to their production and use, and finally focuses on the use of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria as an alternative to avoid the excessive use of such fertilizers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A combination of microalgae (Chlorella vulgaris or C. sorokiniana) and a microalgae growth-promoting bacterium (MGPB, Azospirillum brasilense strain Cd), co-immobilized in small alginate beads, was developed to remove nutrients (P and N) from municipal wastewater. This paper describes the most recent technical details necessary for successful co-immobilization of the two microorganisms, and the usefulness of the approach in cleaning the municipal wastewater of the city of La Paz, Mexico. A. brasilense Cd significantly enhanced the growth of both Chlorella species when the co-immobilized microorganisms were grown in wastewater. A. brasilense is incapable of significant removal of nutrients from the wastewater, whereas both microalgae can. Co-immobilization of the two microorganisms was superior to removal by the microalgae alone, reaching removal of up to 100% ammonium, 94% nitrate, and 92% phosphorus within 6 days (varied with the source of the wastewater), compared to 75% ammonium, 84% nitrate, and 89% phosphorus by the microalgae alone. This study shows the potential of co-immobilization of microorganisms in small beads to serve as a treatment for wastewater. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the phosphate solubilizing potential is not a very common characteristic among microorganisms, phosphate solubilizers belonging to diverse groups of microorganisms, especially bacteria, are known. The ecological role of these microorganisms in soil is very important, as they take part in the biogeochemical cycles of the main nutrient elements in the ecosystems. Thus, it is necessary to study the composition and dynamics of these microbial populations to reach a better understanding of soil microbial diversity and nutrient uptake by plants. The study of populations of microorganisms, which share the common characteristic of phosphate solubilization has great complexity, because they belong to very diverse groups sometimes not closely related under a phylogenetic point of view. Therefore good techniques are needed to perform the analysis and identification of PSM populations. The molecular techniques based on nucleic acid composition are excellent tools for this purpose, as they are precise, reproducible and not dependent on culture media composition or growth phase of microorganisms. In this paper main molecular methods based on electrophoresis of nucleic acids as LMW RNA profiling and PCR-based techniques specially DNA involving approaches are reviewed and discussed, highlighting the main advantages and drawbacks of the different methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the last 6 years China has introduced a number of policies to try and conserve forests and protect watershed integrity; these include a ban on commercial logging, reforestation projects, restrictions on upland farming and burning, and controls on livestock grazing. The blanket nature of these impositions when combined with rapid socio-economic changes have increased pressures on many small rural communities. In this paper, we examine the case of Jisha Village in northwestern Yunnan, China—a typical rural Tibetan community sustained by traditional agriculture and livestock management. The cessation of commercial logging has seen the community turn to towards other income streams such as non-timber forest products (NTFP), increased livestock and attempts to foster tourism. However, timber quotas together with new road access have spurred the development of unofficial markets for village firewood and enhanced access to nearby forests. In addition, the decline of bamboo—a traditional fencing material—has resulted in an estimated 35-fold increase in demand for pine wood. Wood demands in this community are swiftly exceeding the sustainable harvest levels. Forest loss does not merely represent the depletion or degradation of future village timber resources, but also the loss of NTFP habitat. Moreover, due to proscriptions on rangeland burning, pasturelands are becoming degraded and grazing in forests is more intensive—reducing forest regeneration. These findings support calls to improve the flexibility and incorporate local needs into forest policy—the problems highlighted here seem indicative of the practical and philosophical challenges facing environmental planning and research in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a quantitative inventory of woody plants with DBH ≥ 5 cm in Turvo State park, a large remnant (17,500 ha) of seasonal deciduous Atlantic forest in Southern Brazil. The forest inventory was based on 141 sampling points (point centered quarter method). Seventy-eight species from 37 families were recorded, the density was 879 plants ha−1 and the basal area 25.12 m2 ha−1. Timber species of commercial value made up 35% of the species and 72% of the basal area. The ten most abundant species made up 52% of the species, and the ten species with highest basal area accounted for 48% of the total basal area and 12% of the species. Zoochory was the dominant mode of seed dispersal, representing 63% of species and 67% of the plant density. Nine percent of the species were pioneers, 56% were secondary species accounting for 62% of the total basal area, and 35% were opportunistic-climax species accounting for 54% of the plant density. Turvo park has exceptionally high biodiversity and is the last intact large remnant of the Alto-Uruguai river ecosystem. In addition to species richness and an abundance of high value timber species, this forest is of value for the rich genetic resources, and for medicinal and ornamental plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we analyzed the taxonomic diversity of the Argentine dicots to evaluate their relationships with area, latitude, and longitude. We also evaluated species diversity and higher taxa diversity relationships. The families, genera and species diversity in Argentine dicots was not explained by the area of each province but it varied through latitudinal and longitudinal gradients. The taxonomic diversity of these plants increased from high to low latitudes and west-east longitudes. These patterns would explain why the main diversity centers are located in the North region of this country. As we expected the species diversity and higher taxa diversity showed a positive relationship. At this scale, higher taxa diversity could be use as surrogate for species diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The opening of the Suez Canal resulted in the introduction of Indo-Pacific organisms (Lessepsian) to the eastern Mediterranean. Available information on the Levantine ichthyofauna concerns mainly necto-benthic species, while pelagic ones remain mostly uncharacterized. This paper presents a preliminary assessment of biodiversity and its temporal changes on the Lebanese coast (eastern Mediterranean) using species composition and abundance of pelagic communities as indicators. For this purpose, a total of 11,192 fishes, representing 32 species and 19 families were collected with purse seines. Lessepsian species represented 40.9% of the species number in the purse-seine catches but only 0.48% in abundance of individuals and 1.57% in biomass. The families most represented in terms of abundance were the Clupeidae (49.28%), the Engraulidae (41.69%) and the Scombridae (7.01%); in terms of biomass these families represented 56.76, 22.04 and 9.72%, respectively. Abundance and biomass exhibited clear temporal fluctuations with Sardina pilchardus and Scomber japonicus dominating the catches between May and June, and then replaced by Sardinella aurita in July and Engraulis encrasicolus in August. The highest values of species richness (12 species) and diversity indices (H′ = 1.37; D = 0.71) were recorded in the last two weeks of June while the lowest values (5 species, H′ = 0.26; D = 0.11) were recorded in early August. While Lessepsian fishes represented a minor part in terms of landings, they contributed considerably to the diversity of pelagic fish assemblages in Lebanese waters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, species diversity of demersal fish communities was analysed over an area covering about 45,000 km2 of the Italian side of the Strait of Sicily (central Mediterranean). Fish abundance data come from a 10-year series (1994-2003) of experimental bottom trawl surveys carried out within the framework of the international program MEDITS. A simple GIS-based method was proposed to identify areas supporting high or low values of diversity and evaluate their temporal stability. A well-defined spatio-temporal pattern in diversity emerged from the analysis, with some areas of great ecological relevance being identified. Importantly, the greatest diversity within the fish communities was consistently seen at the offshore bank on the western part of the south Sicilian shelf (Adventure Bank). The site also supports high total biomass of demersal resources and shows the presence of species of great concern to fisheries. Results suggest that Adventure Bank represents a priority site for investigating the possibility of innovative management of marine ecosystems and demersal fisheries in offshore zones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently a new index has been proposed for the evaluation of biodiversity: taxonomic distinctness. One of the positive features of this index is that it is neither sampling-effort nor sample-size dependent. Until now, its application has been limited to the assessment of zoobenthos and fish biodiversity. The main objective of this paper was to test the applicability of this index to the macroalgal flora of the Gulf of Trieste (Northern Adriatic Sea). For this purpose the flora recently censused in this area was compared with a checklist of the entire region compiled from the literature. Two indices were mainly used for this study: average taxonomic distinctness based on presence/absence data (AvTD), and variation in taxonomic distinctness (VarTD). Their relationship with species richness was also assessed. The distinctness was compared with statistically significant limits estimated using randomisation tests made on the local master species list. On the same data set multivariate analysis based on a taxonomic similarity index was performed, and a 2nd stage MDS was used to compare results at four taxonomic levels. The results confirmed that statistical over-threshold situations can be highlighted only by one index (AvTD or VarTD) or only by their relationship (AvTD vs VarTD) and not necessarily at the same time by both indices and their relationship. While the average distinctness (AvTD) did not show values significantly different from the expected ones, the variation (VarTD) in one site showed values significantly exceeding confidence limits. This situation has already been described for zoobenthic communities and explained as a consequence of a decrease in habitat diversity. In this case it might be the result of the reduced presence of hard substrata suitable for macroalgal colonisation. The joint analysis of both parameters (AvTD vs VarTD) revealed one site exceeding the 95% confidence limit, which was not identified by analysing only one parameter at a time. This significant over-threshold pattern in the relationship of the distinctness indices could be explained by a relative increase of Rhodophyceae, attributable to the intensive grazing of the sea urchins at this site. The analysis of taxonomic distinctness indices at each site compared with the 95% probability funnels or ellipses derived from the regional species pool gave results consistent with the ones obtained using multivariate analysis. The results of this study suggest that the method may have more general validity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Present-day Mediterranean marine biodiversity is undergoing rapid alteration. Because of the increased occurrence of warm-water biota, it has been said that the Mediterranean is under a process of ‘tropicalization'. This paper analyses the main patterns of the Mediterranean Sea tropicalization and considers briefly its extent and consequences. As happened during previous interglacial phases of the Quaternary, Atlantic water, entering via the Straits of Gibraltar, carries into the Mediterranean species that are prevalently of (sub)tropical affinity. On the other side of the basin, Red Sea species penetrate through the Suez Canal, a phenomenon called lessepsian migration from the name of F. de Lesseps, the French engineer who promoted the cutting of the Canal. Also the many exotic species introduced by humans voluntarily or involuntarily are nearly always typical of warm waters. Climate change combines with Atlantic influx, lessepsian migration and the introduction of exotic species by humans to the establishment of tropical marine biota in the Mediterranean Sea. Present-day warming ultimately favours the spread of warm-water species through direct and indirect effects, and especially by changing water circulation. It is impossible at present to foresee to what extent the exuberance of warm-water species will affect the trophic web and the functioning of marine ecosystems in the Mediterranean Sea of tomorrow. While Mediterranean Sea communities are modifying their pattern of species composition, they do not seem to be acquiring a more marked tropical physiognomy: Mediterranean coastal marine ecosystems are still dominated by fron-dose algae (even if the species that are gaining ascendancy are of tropical origin) and not by corals as is normal in tropical seas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In most cases the negative impacts of climate change to aquatic ecosystems cannot be mitigated by measures in the river basin management. Ignoring climate change by the Water Framework Directive may have strong implications for the typology and quality assessment systems used for water bodies. As a result of climate change, water bodies, especially those located near the type boundaries may change their type. Compared to typology characteristics, water quality parameters are even more labile and may be easily affected by climate change. The paper exemplifies that the anticipated deterioration of water quality within the time frame relevant for WFD implementation may be large enough to endanger the fulfillment of the set water quality objectives. The review of the river basin characterization every six years, as required by the WFD, might also include re-evaluation of reference conditions according to the changes observed at pristine reference sites. As a consequence, the restoration targets (i.e., the good ecological status) would also need to be evaluated periodically. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]