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A coupled framework of ballistic simulations and an optimized machine learning (ML) model was developed to accurately predict the kinetic energy reduction of a projectile impacting a target. ML models can require a significant number of data points for proper training, testing, and validation. High-performance computing (HPC) resources can be used to simulate the ballistic impacts of various projectiles against several different target materials using appropriate physics-based hydrocodes. Computational modeling can explore areas where experiments would naturally be cost-prohibitive. These hydrocodes can evaluate large parametric spaces varying the projectile and target variables that are required to train an ML model. In this study a large, generated set of data points was used to develop an optimized artificial neural network (ANN) algorithm to create a fast-running model without prior knowledge of the mathematical relationships between all the input and output variables. The optimized ANN model was developed using Optuna in an HPC environment to tune the hyperparameters needed for the ANN model. This fast-running ML model could then be leveraged to investigate designing optimized targets that could protect against different types of projectiles. The results of this work showed that the optimized ANN model predicted the kinetic energy reduction with a mean absolute percentage error of 2.7% across the validation data. Overall, the optimized ANN model showed excellent agreement across the range of data considered by the computational models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The discovery of a specific form of Late Neolithic object in northeast Poland, commonly interpreted as reed arrowshaft straighteners, prompted investigation into the possible use of reed for archery in the European past. To examine the archery qualities of this raw material, and thus the likely rationale behind the manufacture and use of reed arrowshafts, a number of mechanical and experimental analyses were conducted. The results presented here indicate that reed was well suited for prehistoric archery. This is demonstrated above all by the arrowshaft stiffness required by this discipline, defined as the spine‐force, but also both the technological ease of production of arrows and their ballistic capabilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The object of research is the complex realm of energy localization and coherent ballistic electronic transport within low-dimensional silicon quantum wires, specifically those doped with germanium atoms. Unlike their three-dimensional counterparts, low-dimensional systems exhibit unique electronic transport behaviors, necessitating novel analytical approaches for a comprehensive understanding. The core of this investigation leverages the Phase Field Matching Theory (PMFT) and the tight-binding (TB) approximation, sophisticated methodologies that enable a deep dive into the quantum mechanical nuances of these systems. Through this lens, we examine the intricate dynamics of dispersion relationships, phase factors, group velocities, and notably, the impact of defects introduced by the germanium doping. This research meticulously analyzes how these defects affect electronic and thermal conductivities, along with densities of states, offering new insights into the role of Fano resonances in the fluctuation of transmission and reflection spectra. These resonances, we find, are crucially dependent on the nature of the defects, their configuration, and the electronic parameters in their vicinity, underscoring the nuanced interplay between material composition and electronic properties in low-dimensional systems. The implications of our findings extend far beyond the theoretical. They pave the way for significant advancements in nanotechnology and the design of electronic devices, highlighting the potential for creating more efficient, high-performance components. Furthermore, this work proposes a framework for developing non-destructive testing methodologies that could revolutionize material science by enabling the precise analysis of defects in low-dimensional systems without causing damage. This is particularly critical for the ongoing development of materials with optimized properties for various applications, from electronics to energy storage. In essence, this research not only enriches our understanding of the physics governing low-dimensional systems but also offers practical insights into leveraging these properties for technological innovation. By bridging the gap between theoretical physics and material science, our study sets the stage for the next generation of electronic components and non-destructive evaluation techniques, marking a significant step forward in the application of quantum mechanics to real-world challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In examining deaths resulting from gunshot wounds, it is important to describe the wound pathway created by the projectile. Forensic pathologists must identify all entrance and exit wounds and account for all projectiles. Occasionally, confusion arises as to whether a skin defect represents an entrance wound or not, an exit wound, or some other type of wound. Herein, we propose the descriptor "bullet track skin defect" as a formal description for a superficial skin defect created along the pathway of a projectile within the body. Specifically, we define the "bullet track skin defect" as a partial‐ or full‐thickness skin defect produced by a projectile traveling beneath the skin in a relatively tangential fashion as part of a wound pathway within the body. It is somewhat analogous to a traditional graze or superficial tangential wound, wherein the projectile traveling outside the body strikes the skin tangentially from above, without entering the body. However, the projectile is already traveling within the body with the bullet track skin defect, disrupting the skin tangentially from below rather than from above, without exiting the body. Although these defects are not a common presentation of gunshot wounds, they are certainly not rare. With this case series, we suggest that such defects may be referred to as "bullet track skin defects." Alternative language that can substitute for "bullet track skin defects" includes "bullet track skin wounds" or "bullet track cutaneous defects." [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Computed tomography (CT) may have a crucial role in the forensic documentation and analysis of firearm injuries. The aim of this forensic ballistics case study was to explore whether two types of expanding bullets and a full metal-jacketed bullet could be differentiated by inspecting bullet fragments and fragmentation pattern in CT. Three types of.30 caliber bullets (full metal-jacketed Norma Jaktmatch, expanding full-copper Norma Ecostrike, and expanding soft-point Norma Oryx) were test fired from a distance of 5 m to blocks of 10% ballistic gelatine. CT scans of the blocks were obtained with clinical equipment and metal artifact reduction. Radiopaque fragments were identified and fragmentation parameters were obtained from the scans (total number of fragments, maximum diameter of the largest fragment, distance between entrance and the closest fragment, length of the fragment cloud, and maximum diameters of the fragment cloud). The fragmentation patterns were additionally visualized by means of 3D reconstruction. In CT, the bullet types differed in several fragmentation parameters. While the expanding full-copper bullet Ecostrike left behind only a single fragment near the end of the bullet channel, the soft-point Oryx had hundreds of fragments deposited throughout the channel. For both expanding bullets Ecostrike and Oryx, the fragments were clearly smaller than those left behind by the full metal-jacketed Jaktmatch. This was surprising as the full metal-jacketed bullet was expected to remain intact. The fragment cloud of Jaktmatch had similar mediolateral and superoinferior diameters to that of Oryx; however, fragments were deposited in the second half of the gelatine block, and not throughout the block. This case study provides a basis and potential methodology for further experiments. The findings are expected to benefit forensic practitioners with limited background information on gunshot injury cases, for example, those that involve several potential firearms or atypical gunshot wounds. The findings may prove beneficial for both human and wildlife forensics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article titled "Theory and design consideration of a THz superradiant waveguide FEL" provides a theoretical analysis and design considerations for a THz superradiant Free Electron Laser (FEL). The authors present analytical expressions for the spectral parameter of THz radiation emitted superradiantly in a rectangular waveguide and compare their results with numerical simulations. They discuss the limitations of beam bunching and energy spread in achieving higher THz frequency operation. The article offers valuable insights into the theory and design of THz superradiant waveguide FELs, emphasizing the need for further simulations to consider space-charge effects and reduce energy spread for future advancements. [Extracted from the article]

A new area of underwater equipment research focus is the use of underwater unmanned vehicles (UUVs) with launch mechanisms to deploy lightweight and small-sized robots for functions including communication, exploration, and detection. The internal ballistic mathematical model of the underwater launch system for small robots is established in this paper. The internal ballistic parameters and the robot displacement and velocity change rule over time are obtained. The optimization calculation of the crucial parameters to be determined by the particle swarm algorithm is completed. Following optimization, the gas cylinder's initial pressure is 2 MPa, its capacity is 30 L, its opening area is 9.683 × 10−5 m2, and its opening time is 0.02 s. A numerical simulation is performed for the small robot's underwater launch process, based on the mathematical and physical model supplied by Fluent 2020 software. The results yield the robot's motion law and the properties of the flow field during the launch process. The purpose of the underwater launcher experiment is to determine the robot's motion characteristics. The accuracy of the theoretical model is confirmed by comparing and analyzing the numerical simulation results with the actual data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose. Development of an approximate nonlinear model for the solution of the external ballistics problem with determination of the nonlinear system parameters and development of a methodology for calculating the aerodynamic characteristics of the cargo, located on the external suspension of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) in order to increase the efficiency of their delivery to the specified landing target by means of asymptotic approach with given parameters of the studied system and external load. Methodology. The development of an effective model was carried out using analytical and numerical research algorithms based on a nonlinear system of differential equations in a general form with time-varying coefficients. In order to obtain a solution to the nonlinear problem of external ballistics in a two-dimensional formulation, the assumption of a significant influence of the projection of the velocity function on the ordinate axis in relation to the component on the abscissa axis is introduced. The problem is reduced to the solution of a related system of differential equations with variable coefficients along the corresponding coordinates using the asymptotic approach for a small parameter of the coefficient of frontal aerodynamic resistance. Applied mathematical analysis and modeling have been used for the problem formulation considering studied environmental parameters. Findings. Analytical dependences of the nonlinear problem of ballistics and application of finite-element analysis (FEA) with respect to the cargo motion from the UAV in the presence of the initial speed and wind load in the plane of motion are proposed. It is shown that the obtained analytical solution is correlated with the direct numerical calculation of the basic differential equation with respect to the ordinate axis. Originality. A mathematical nonlinear model of the dynamic process is proposed, assuming the prevailing influence of the speed function along the ordinate axis compared to the function along the abscissa axis. To obtain an approximate analytical solution of the basic nonlinear system of differential equations with variable coefficients the asymptotic perturbation method is applied. The dependence for the axial displacement function is presented considering actual time-flight parameter. Practical value. The obtained analytical dependencies for estimating the time and distance reaching the target with the initial speed of movement and the presence of wind load can be used in applied problems of mathematical physics and engineering calculations of functional dependencies and control of the cargo delivery process and target reaching from an UAV. The obtained analytical results and the solution algorithm can be integrated into applied problems of mathematical physics and engineering calculations, particularly the development of ballistic system control algorithms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review covers the effect of ageing on solid gun and rocket propellants in terms of their ballistic properties. A brief overview of the types of methods, which can be used to determine such parameters, is provided and the literature is described in terms of broad motivation areas for the research. It has been demonstrated that understanding the effects and outputs of propellants, and how these might be affected by ageing, remains an important area of research in the field of energetic materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The sodium rhodizonate test is a simple colorimetric technique used to identify traces of lead and barium. A positive test provides rapid and photographically documentable results for shots fired at distances not exceeding 50 cm. Usually, this method is not used for identification of the firing hand, which is detected by electron microscopy with energy dispersive analysis (SEM-EDX), requiring the removal of any particles on the surface to be analyzed by STUB. The use of Sodium Rhodizonate, which is undoubtedly less selective, has the disadvantage of target element solubilization (lead and barium) and thus the loss of the preliminary morphological investigation of the particles. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate that the two indicated methods can be considered complementary in the following order: 1. buffer sampling for electron microscopy investigation (STUB); 2. and subsequent performance of the Sodium Rhodizonate Test. In some special cases, when it is necessary to obtain the result more quickly, with regards to respecting the chronology of the aforementioned tests, it may be useful to carry out the Sodium Rhodizonate Test first, especially when particular and perhaps antiquated weapons were used for suicidal purposes causing considerable gas dispersion and shot residues from the mechanisms. This research illustrates how significant results were obtained substantiating the suicide hypothesis, following the use of an old revolver (year of manufacture around 1915-1920).

The frequency of ballistic spinal injuries is rising in developing nations around the globe. These injuries lead to a functional prognosis linked to disabling sequelae and vitals in patients, which often results in serious complications and death.This study describes the epidemiological, diagnostic, therapeutic, evolutionary characteristics of Ballistic Medullar-Vertebral trauma (BMVT). It presents the particularities of management in the sub-Saharan African country of Chad.This is a prospective descriptive study of 27 ballistic spinal injury patients conducted over an 18-month period.Ballistic Medullar-Vertebral injuries (BMVI) represented 12.9 % of spinal trauma. The average age of the patients was 31.8, and 40.7 % were between 31 and 40 years of age. Military personnel represented 78 % of the patients. 44.4 % of cases came from the Lake Chad region. 59.3 % of injuries were caused by Kalashnikov’s (AK 47) firearms. 74.1 % of cases were admitted to the emergency department within 12 to 24 h. The diameter of the wounds that corresponded to the entry orifice of the bullet was between 1 and 2 cm in 59.25 % of the cases. A Dural breach was found in 14.8 %. 48.1 % had ASIA C score and none of them met the criteria for spinal cord injury collection and immobilization. The lumbosacral location was reported in 55.6 %, and the type I Roy Camille fracture was found in 70.37 %. Surgical management was performed in 88.9 % cases. Multidisciplinary management of the associated lesions was performed in 25.9 %. 7.4 % of patients with cervical trauma died due to septic shock.Delayed emergency department admissions and limited access to medicalized transportation are main factors to BMVI in Chad. Lesion is predominantly located in the lumbosacral region. Lesions and spinal cord involvement were factors of poor vital and functional prognosis. Surgery plays an important role in management. Socio-professional reintegration remains problematic.

To enhance the comprehensive performance of artillery internal ballistics--encompassing power, accuracy, and service life--this study proposed a multi-stage multidisciplinary design optimization (MS-MDO) method. First, the comprehensive artillery internal ballistic dynamics (AIBD) model, based on propellant combustion, rotation band engraving, projectile axial motion, and rifling wear models, was established and validated. This model was systematically decomposed into subsystems from a system engineering perspective. The study then detailed the MS-MDO methodology, which included Stage I (MDO stage) employing an improved collaborative optimization method for consistent design variables, and Stage II (Performance Optimization) focusing on the independent optimization of local design variables and performance metrics. The methodology was applied to the AIBD problem. Results demonstrated that the MS-MDO method in Stage I effectively reduced iteration and evaluation counts, thereby accelerating system-level convergence. Meanwhile, Stage II optimization markedly enhanced overall performance. These comprehensive evaluation results affirmed the effectiveness of the MS-MDO method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a tidal disruption event (TDE), a star is destroyed by the gravitational field of a supermassive black hole (SMBH) to produce a stream of debris, some of which accretes onto the SMBH and creates a luminous flare. The distribution of mass along the stream has a direct impact on the accretion rate, and thus modelling the time-dependent evolution of this distribution provides insight into the relevant physical processes that drive the observable properties of TDEs. Analytic models that only account for the ballistic evolution of the debris do not capture salient and time-dependent features of the mass distribution, suggesting that fluid dynamical effects significantly modify the debris dynamics. Previous investigations have claimed that shocks are primarily responsible for these modifications, but here we show – with high-resolution hydrodynamical simulations – that self-gravity is the dominant physical mechanism responsible for the anomalous (i.e. not predicted by ballistic models) debris stream features and its time dependence. These high-resolution simulations also show that there is a specific length-scale on which self-gravity modifies the debris mass distribution, and as such there is enhanced power in specific Fourier modes. Our results have implications for the stability of the debris stream under the influence of self-gravity, particularly at late times and the corresponding observational signatures of TDEs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Low velocity ballistic deformation behavior of closed-cell aluminum metal foam targets fabricated by powder metallurgy technique has been investigated. The metal matrix of aluminum (60 micron) was mixed with carbamide (CH4N2O) particles of size one mm. Green samples were obtained by compacting the mixture followed by sintering process using a muffle furnace and the metallic foam thus obtained had an average pore size of 1.5 mm. Compared to metallic material, significant reduction in hardness and density was observed when the porosity was increased from 5 to 30%. Using a gas gun setup, low velocity (100 m/s and conical projectile) ballistic experiments were conducted on metal foam targets to understand the deformation behavior. Not any penetration of the projectile was observed when the percentage of porosity was less than 5%. When the percentage of porosity was increased, the projectile was able to perforate the target as the fracture toughness decreases. The size of fragmented areas of the perforated targets and depth of penetration (DoP) of the projectile were measured. Decrease in DoP (improved ballistic resistance) was observed with the increase in relative density of the closed foam target. Even though the projectile could perforate the foam target, no cracks were observed which enhances the suitability of the metal foams to be used as structural applications of defense vehicles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As one of the most widely used personal protective equipment (PPE), body armors play an important role in protecting the human body from the high-velocity impact of bullets or projectiles. The body torso and critical organs of the wear may suffer severe behind-armor blunt trauma (BABT) even though the impactor is stopped by the body armor. A type of novel composite material through incorporating shear stiffening gel (STG) into ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA) foam is developed and used as buffer layers to reduce BABT. In this paper, the protective performance of body armors composed of fabric bulletproof layers and a buffer layer made of foam material is investigated both experimentally and numerically. The effectiveness of STG-modified EVA in damage relief is verified by ballistic tests. In parallel with the experimental study, numerical simulations are conducted by LS-DYNA® to investigate the dynamic response of each component and capture the key mechanical parameters, which are hardly obtained from field tests. To fully describe the material behavior under the transient impact, the selected constitutive models take the failure and strain rate effect into consideration. A good agreement between the experimental observations and numerical results is achieved to prove the validity of the modelling method. The tests and simulations show that the impact-induced deformation on the human body is significantly reduced by using STG-modified EVA as the buffering material. The improvement of protective performance is attributed to better dynamic properties and more outstanding energy absorption capability of the composite foam. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is investigating the use of composite armour reinforced by nanomaterials, for the protection of light armoured (LAV) and medium armoured military vehicles (MAV), and the interaction between the composite materials and high-performance ballistic projectiles. Four armour materials, consisted of front hybrid fibre reinforced polymer cover layer, ceramic strike-face, fibre reinforced polymer intermediate layer and the metal matrix composite reinforced backplate, were manufactured and assembled by adhesive technology. The proposed laminated protection system is suitable for armoured ground vehicles; however, it could be used as armour on ground, air and naval platforms. The design of the protection system, including material selection and thickness, was elaborated depending on the performance requirements of Level 4 ＋ STANAG 4569 military standard (projectile 14.5 mm ( 114 mm API B32) and especially on a design philosophy which is analysed with the specifications. The backplate of this new composite is a hybrid material of Metal Matrix Composite (MMC) reinforced with carbon nanotubes (CNTs), manufactured with the use of powder metallurgy technique. The composite backplate material was morphologically, mechanically and chemically analysed. Results show that all plates are presenting high mechanical properties and ballistic characteristics, compared to commonly used armour plates. Real military ballistic tests according to AEP - STANAG 4569 were carried out for the total composite armour systems. After the ballistic tests, AA2024-CNT3 showed the best protection results, compared with the other plates (AA2024-CNT1 and AA2024-CNT2), with the projectile being unable to fully penetrate the composite plate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To accelerate the practicality of electromagnetic railguns, it is necessary to use a combination of threedimensional numerical simulation and experiments to study the mechanism of bore damage. In this paper, a three-dimensional numerical model of the augmented railgun with four parallel unconventional rails is introduced to simulate the internal ballistic process and realize the multi-physics field coupling calculation of the rail gun, and a test experiment of a medium-caliber electromagnetic launcher powered by pulse formation network (PFN) is carried out. Various test methods such as spectrometer, fiber grating and high-speed camera are used to test several parameters such as muzzle initial velocity, transient magnetic field strength and stress-strain of rail. Combining the simulation results and experimental data, the damage condition of the contact surface is analyzed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the numerical simulation method is used to study the ballistic performances of hourglass lattice sandwich structures with the same mass under the vertical incidence of fragments. Attention is paid to elucidating the influences of rod cross-section dimensions, structure height, structure layer, and rod inclination angle on the deformation mode, ballistic performances, and ability to change the ballistic direction of fragments. The results show that the ballistic performances of hourglass lattice sandwich structures are mainly affected by their structural parameters. In this respect, structural parameters optimization of the hourglass lattice sandwich structures enable one to effectively improve their ballistic limit velocity and, consequently, ballistic performances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A series of ballistic experiments were performed to investigate the damage behavior of high velocity reactive material projectiles (RMPs) impacting liquid-filled tanks, and the corresponding hydrodynamic ram (HRAM) was studied in detail. PTFE/Al/W RMPs with steel-like and aluminum-like densities were prepared by a pressing/sintering process. The projectiles impacted a liquid-filled steel tank with front aluminum panel at approximately 1250 m/s. The corresponding cavity evolution characteristics and HRAM pressure were recorded by high-speed camera and pressure acquisition system, and further compared to those of steel and aluminum projectiles. Significantly different from the conical cavity formed by the inert metal projectile, the cavity formed by the RMP appeared as an ellipsoid with a conical front. The RMPs were demonstrated to enhance the radial growth velocity of cavity, the global HRAM pressure amplitude and the front panel damage, indicating the enhanced HRAM and structural damage behavior. Furthermore, combining the impact-induced fragmentation and deflagration characteristics, the cavity evolution of RMPs under the combined effect of kinetic energy impact and chemical energy release was analyzed. The mechanism of enhanced HRAM pressure induced by the RMPs was further revealed based on the theoretical model of the initial impact wave and the impulse analysis. Finally, the linear correlation between the deformation-thickness ratio and the non-dimensional impulse for the front panel was obtained and analyzed. It was determined that the enhanced near-field impulse induced by the RMPs was the dominant reason for the enhanced structural damage behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A terminal ballistic analysis of the effects of 7.62 mm X 51 AP P80 rounds on inclined high-strength armor steel plates is the focus of the presented study. The findings of an instrumented ballistic testing combined with 3D advanced numerical simulations performed using the IMPETUS Afea® software yielded the conclusions. The experimental verification proved that slight differences in the pitch-andyaw angles of a projectile upon an impact caused different damage types to the projectile's core. The residual velocities predicted numerically were close to the experimental values and the calculated core deviations were in satisfactory agreement with the experimental results. An extended matrix of the core deviation angles with combinations of pitch-and-yaw upon impact angles was subsequently built on the basis of the numerical study. The presented experimental and numerical investigation examined thoroughly the influence of the initial pitch and yaw angles on the after-perforation projectile's performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Machine learning (ML) is well suited for the prediction of high-complexity, high-dimensional problems such as those encountered in terminal ballistics. We evaluate the performance of four popular ML-based regression models, extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost), artificial neural network (ANN), support vector regression (SVR), and Gaussian process regression (GP), on two common terminal ballistics' problems: (a) predicting the V50 ballistic limit of monolithic metallic armour impacted by small and medium calibre projectiles and fragments, and (b) predicting the depth to which a projectile will penetrate a target of semi-infinite thickness. To achieve this we utilise two datasets, each consisting of approximately 1000 samples, collated from public release sources. We demonstrate that all four model types provide similarly excellent agreement when interpolating within the training data and diverge when extrapolating outside this range. Although extrapolation is not advisable for ML-based regression models, for applications such as lethality/survivability analysis, such capability is required. To circumvent this, we implement expert knowledge and physics-based models via enforced monotonicity, as a Gaussian prior mean, and through a modified loss function. The physics-informed models demonstrate improved performance over both classical physics-based models and the basic ML regression models, providing an ability to accurately fit experimental data when it is available and then revert to the physics-based model when not. The resulting models demonstrate high levels of predictive accuracy over a very wide range of projectile types, target materials and thicknesses, and impact conditions significantly more diverse than that achievable from any existing analytical approach. Compared with numerical analysis tools such as finite element solvers the ML models run orders of magnitude faster. We provide some general guidelines throughout for the development, application, and reporting of ML models in terminal ballistics problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At present, compound targets are usually used to evaluate the mechanism of weapon injury and killing efficiency as well as the protective performance of soft armor. In order to study the ballistic impact response of the skin-gelatin composite target under the protection of UHMWPE panel, the structural design scheme of UHMWPE panel with different specifications was drawn up and prepared. Ballistic impact experiments were carried out on the UHMWPE panel with 7.62 mm pistol projectile, and the damage morphology, residual velocity and energy absorption mechanism of the target plate were analyzed. The finite element models of 7.62 mm pistol bullet penetrating UHMWPE panel and UHMWPE panel-skin-gelatin were constructed, and the impact response characteristics and damage morphology of the composite target were analyzed under different area densities, incident velocities and angles of attack. The results showed that different specifications and processes will affect the protective performance of UHMWPE panel. With the increase of incident velocity and angle of attack, the concave depth of the panel becomes larger and the damage becomes more serious. Furthermore, in the process of penetration, the constraint definition of the model will affect the stress propagation of the composite target. This study provides a new idea for the evaluation of weapon injury mechanism and killing efficiency and the evaluation of protective performance of body armor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The problems of the motion and destruction of large cosmic bodies under the influence of thermal and force loads in the Earth's atmosphere are considered. Based on the modified physical theory of meteors, a mathematical model of the trajectories of the motion of such bodies during the penetration of the planet's atmosphere is constructed. A computational experiment is carried out for known meteoroids selected as the reference ones in order to determine the effect of the ballistic parameters of the entry of these meteoroids (the angle of inclination of the trajectory to the Earth's surface and velocity) on the process of their destruction in the Earth's atmosphere. It is shown that these characteristics have a significant influence on the motion and destruction of cosmic bodies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Ballistics deals with the study of projectile propulsion, flight, and impact in any medium. Different garment materials can have varying effects when it comes to the penetration of pellets into the body. Body armor has been around for a long time. Dhal, a curving strip of rhino hide, was possibly the first armor in India, used for sword fighting or defense against arrows and spears. It gave way to steel armor, which protected the body’s essential organs from spear and arrow strikes. The current study is primarily concerned with how jeans material, when employed as body armor, contributes to the inquiry. The present study also examines how airgun pellets fired at various ranges affect jeans clothing wrapped around gel blocks. Results The study concluded that when fired at varied ranges, there was no significant variation in the diameters of the entry holes on clothing material. The gel block covered with jeans clothing was not found to be more damaged. Conclusions The findings also indicate that pellets had larger track lengths regardless of the range from which they were fired.

. During shooting operations in garrison shooting ranges, a phenomenon of random deflection of the bullet flight path was noticed which may cause secondary reflections from accidentally hit technical and ballistic shooting range elements and the ground of the actual plane of the shooting range (ricochets posing a threat to people and property within the shooting range and safety zones). Minimisation of this phenomenon must be considered during the design and operation of the shooting ranges. In 20202022 the Military Institute of Armament Technology (Zielonka, Poland) carried out tests with the aim of determining the impact of the shooting target or military target material or design (hereinafter referred to as the targets) on the risk of occurrence of modifications of bullet trajectory that cause the bullets to leave the shooting zone. The paper presents example results of these tests that show, but are not limited to, that the reasons to modify the direction of the bullet path after target penetration and any ricochets include: target material (flat or corrugated sheet metal, cardboard, plywood, etc.), target wooden legs, and even metal elements fixing the legs to the target. On the basis of the test it was shown that the metal targets prohibited on intermediate lines may cause significant deflections of the bullet flight path after penetration and dangerous ricochets. Due to the reason presented above, the metal targets are placed on the last line of targets before the main bullet trap only where the technical and ballistic parameters of the bullet trap ensure that any ricochets are captured. It was stated that the contact targets used on intermediate target lines and provided with wooden legs may cause bullet trajectory changes comparable to or even greater than in the case of the prohibited metal targets. To this end it is advisable to establish legal framework covering the ballistic inspection of the target materials to be used in garrison shooting ranges.

A detailed mapping of volcanic ballistic projectiles emplaced in a defined area, represents the starting point to derive preparatory data in hazard and risk studies of ballistics phenomena. Considering as case study the 3rd July 2019 paroxysmal eruption occurred at Stromboli volcano, we map and analyse at very high spatial resolution (8 cm) the distribution of the ballistic spatter clasts emplaced on the E flank of the volcano. The resulting map identifies and reproduces as geospatial polygon elements 152,228 spatter clasts with areal dimensions from 0.03 to 4.23 m2. Dispersed on 0.407 km2, the spatters cover an area of 29,000 m2 corresponding to an erupted products volume from 2.3 to 7.0 × 103 m3, calculated here for the first time. Spatial analyses indicate that the area mostly affected by the clasts emplacement is between N67.5 and N135 directions, identifying a preferential deposition between N112.50 and N123.75 directions. The clasts size distribution rapidly decreases with the size increase, highlighting a nearly constant ratio small/large clasts regardless the distance from the vent. Finally, additional investigations reveal that clasts dispersion parameters decrease progressively with the distance from the vent only along one direction (N67.5), highlighting how the morphology influences the deposition and remobilisation of mapped ballistics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A mathematical simulation of the internal ballistics of a shot from a gun, depending on the design of the charge of the gun, has been performed. A general system of equations defining the unsteady movement of a two-phase gas–powder mixture in the channel of the barrel of a gun in the one-dimensional approximation is presented. Results of simulation of a shot from a gun charged with tubular powder or chopped powder are presented. The influence of the gradual ignition of a powder in a gun and of its nonstationary and erosion burning in it on the parameters of the ballistic process in the gun and the influence of the mass and disposition of an igniter in the gun on the dynamics of a shot from it were investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the era of unmanned war, with the increasing muzzle velocity requirement, the design of gun is significantly restricted by recoil, especially for guns installed on unmanned aerial vehicles. A recoilless gun with combustible cartridge was designed to eliminate recoil and increase projectile velocity, and the influence of main parameters on recoil was studied. First, a design of a recoilless gun with high projectile velocity is proposed based on combustible cartridge case. Next, a classical interior ballistic model is developed during the recoilless gun firing cycle, and the effect of main parameters of interior ballistics on the performance is investigated. Additionally, simple nonlinear fitting formulae are defined to highlight the variation of recoil momentum with the time of interior ballistic model. Finally, numerical simulation results are compared with the test results to validate the feasibility of the design. The experimental results demonstrate that the classical interior ballistic model can be used to accurately analyze the effect of the parameters on the projectile velocity and the recoil reduction efficiency. The projectile velocity of the recoilless gun could raised to 1200 m/s and the recoil momentum could be eliminated almostly. Therefore, the newly designed recoilless gun effectively eliminates the recoil momentum and significantly improves the projectile velocity. The findings should make an important contribution to the field of engineering applications of recoilless gun. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The change of ambient temperature will cause the change of gunpowder burning rate, which will directly affect the ballistic performance of the projectile and cause the change of the overload of the projectile fuze system. In this study, the numerical simulation program of the interior trajectory of a large-caliber gun was established by MATLAB, and the variation rules of the corresponding trajectory parameters at different temperatures were obtained. ANSYS finite element software is used to analyze the force of the projectile fuze system under different ambient temperatures. The results show that under the same loading conditions, with the increase of ambient temperature, the maximum pressure in the gun bore and the muzzle velocity of the projectile increase significantly, and the stress and strain of the projectile fuze system in the bore increase gradually. The numerical simulation results are in good agreement with the theory, which reveals the influence of ambient temperature on the overload in the bore of the projectile fuze system to a certain extent, and provides theoretical support for the study of internal ballistics, charge design and gun use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To clarify the combustion process of a modular charge system with a primer gap, the rules governing the cartridge movement and pressure change in the chamber are analyzed. Based on the characteristics of the modular charge system, an axisymmetric two-phase flow model of the interior ballistics is established, with the monotonic upward-centered scheme for conservation laws adopted to calculate the combustion process. Compared with the experimental results, the difference in the peak pressure is less than 5%, which indicates that the mathematical model and scheme are reliable and accurate. The results show that, during the initial stage of ignition, the combustible container remains unbroken, and the gas and solid particles are prevented from spreading to the chamber by the end cap of the cartridge. Thus, only the gas inside the igniter tube influences the flow field in the chamber. After the combustible container has broken, the gas and solid particles move rapidly toward the cavity from the combustible container. The axial movement of solid particles is more intense than that of the gas particles, but the radial movement of solid particles is relatively weak. Furthermore, the existence of the primer gap leads to a delay in the ignition time of the solid particles, which delays the rupture time of the igniter tube and the module cartridge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Researchers use a variety of target materials, and sometimes combinations of materials, in their archaeological experiments to examine thrust‐spear or projectile penetration, impact angle, durability, and other issues involving prehistoric hunting weaponry. This variety of target materials is beneficial to archaeological science in several ways, but it may also hinder the comparison of results because many of these target materials do not necessarily share similar physical properties. Here, we assess the penetration properties of four different target materials—store‐bought meat, clay, and two types of gelatin—via static penetration tests of a modern broadhead‐tipped arrow and a stone‐tipped projectile attached to an Instron Universal Materials Tester. Our analyses of load‐deflection curves, peak load, and work energy demonstrate how the four target materials are similar in some ways but different in others, which suggests that researchers may strategically employ one or several depending on the question asked or hypothesis tested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is shown that the ratio of the proton convective gyroradius r Ep, to the width of the shock ramp D , controls the thermalization process of ions in quasi-perpendicular shocks. When r Ep/ D > 1, the solar wind beam energy is rapidly converted to gyration (thermal) energy by a universal, transit time thermalization (TTT) mechanism that does not require any collisions, waves, or instabilities. The TTT of ions on magnetic field gradients is followed by stochastic wave energization (SWE) on electric field gradients. Ions heated by TTT and SWE processes are subject to additional ballistic surfing acceleration caused by the convection field in the shock front. These three fundamental ion energization mechanisms are studied with test-particle simulations in a realistic shock model, and are shown to be consistent with magnetospheric multiscale measurements in the Earth's bow shock. It is also shown that shock reflected ions are produced by the SWE process and not by the cross-shock potential. An explanation for downstream oscillations in quasi-perpendicular shocks is also provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two-phase flow numerical methods are applied in internal ballistics widely, which has made higher fidelity analysis with minimal cost become an urgent demand. Current methods are based on independent dimension, and there is no definite conversion criterion and data transmission method, which have limited the application of efficient hybrid models applied to calculation. In this paper, we propose a hybrid method by linking a two dimensional (2D) model to a one dimensional (1D) model for two-phase flow. First, 1D and 2D two-phase flow models are established according to the flow field states in different phases. Next, the criterion of conversion between the two models is established, which is a quantitative index to judge the degree of radial effect and axial effect. Finally, dimension transformation in the radial direction and grid mergence in the axial direction are conducted to complete the whole computing model. The simulation results show that the hybrid method is more efficient in the interior ballistic process and maintains the level of trust in classical codes. Compared with the 2D method, the hybrid method significantly improves the computational efficiency by 86.5%. By analyzing the state in the chamber, the accuracy of the conversion criterion is confirmed. This criterion can be used as the transformation criterion of the hybrid model to form the standard multi-dimensional calculation transformation criterion of interior ballistics and may be promising for the rapid simulation of two-phase flow in interior ballistics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ballistic impact response of Kevlar textiles is significantly influenced by the friction between the yarns. It increases the dissipation of energy when yarns begin to displace relative to one another and it also results in to transfer of load to a larger area during ballistic impacts. In the present work, a novel sulfonyl aryl group containing monomer acrylic acid-2-(toluene sulphonyl amine)-ethyl ester (AATSAEE) was synthesized by a three-step process with ethanol amine and p-toluene sulfonic acid as starting material. The monomer was homopolymerized and grafted on Kevlar fabric by UV-induced free radical polymerization technique. Benzoyl peroxide (BPO) was used as initiator. Utilizing spectroscopic and thermal gravimetric methods, the monomer, precursor, and the homopolymer were characterized. The yarn pull-out tests on unmodified and AATSAEE grafted Kevlar fabrics were performed on Universal Tensile Tester at a steady speed of the upper jaw of 50 cm min−1. Increases in yarn pull out force have been noted with grafting of AATSAEE on Kevlar fabric. The peak force increases around 284% with grafting which indicates an increase in friction forces. When these yarns start to move apart from one another due to friction factors, the fabric's energy dissipation increases and it may results in to increase in energy absorption at the time of ballistic impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multi-layer fabrics are commonly used in ballistics shields with a lower bulletproof class to protect against pistol and revolver bullets. In order to additionally limit the dynamic deflection of the samples, layers reinforced with additional materials, including non-Newtonian fluids compacted by shear, are additionally used. Performing a wide range of tests in each case can be very problematic; therefore, there are many calculation methods that allow, with better or worse results, mapping of the behavior of the material in the case of impact loads. The search for simplified methods is very important in order to simplify the complexity of numerical fabric models while maintaining the accuracy of the results obtained. In this article, multi-layer composites were tested. Two samples were included in the elements subjected to shelling. In the first sample, the outer layers consisted of aramid fabrics in a laminate with a thermoplastic polymer matrix. The middle layer contained a non-Newtonian shear-thickening fluid enclosed in hexagonal (honeycomb) cells. The fluid was produced using polypropylene glycol and colloidal silica powder with a diameter of 14 µm in the proportions of 60/40. The backing plate was made using a 12-layer composite made of Twaron® para-aramid fabrics with a DCPD matrix—not yet used in a wide range of ballistics. Then, numerical simulations were carried out in the Abaqus/Explicit dynamic analysis. The Johnson–Cook constitutive strength model was used to describe the behavior of elastic–plastic materials constituting the elements of the projectiles. For the non-Newtonian fluid, a Up-Us EOS was used. The inner layers of the fabric were treated as an orthotropic material. Complete homogenization of the sample layers was carried out, thanks to which each layer was treated as a homogeneous continuum. As a parameter of fracture mechanics for shield components, the strain criterion was used with the smooth particles hydrodynamics method (SPH). Then, the results of simulations were compared with the results of the ballistic test for both samples placed next to each other, which resulted in the formation of a multi-layer composite in one ballistic test subjected to impact loads during firing with a 9 × 19 mm Parabellum FMJ projectile with an initial velocity of 370 ± 10 m/s. The results of numerical tests are very similar to the ballistic tests, which indicates the correct mapping of the process and the correct conduct of layer homogenization. The applied proportions of the components in the non-Newtonian fluid allowed a reduction in the deflection compared to previous studies. Additionally, the proposal to use a DCPD matrix allowed to obtain a much lower deflection value compared to other materials, which is a novelty in the field of production of ballistic shields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fluctuations in outer space's temperature would affect the spacecraft's regular operation. This paper aims to study the temperature influences of the aluminum honeycomb buffer in the tether-net launcher. Firstly, a buffer structure was designed to attenuate the pyroshock generated by the pyrotechnic device. Secondly, the mechanical properties of aluminum honeycomb at different temperatures were obtained through quasi-static compression experiments. Then, the internal ballistic responses of the launcher were gained by the closed bomb tests and the equivalent classical interior ballistic model. Finally, the recoil performance of the launcher with aluminum honeycomb buffer at different temperatures was studied. It is revealed that the aluminum honeycomb crushing force gradually decreases with the temperature increases. The peak pressure, burning rate coefficient and velocity increase while the peak time decreases with the temperature increase for the interior ballistics. For the launcher recoil responses, the average launch recoil decreases if the aluminum honeycomb doesn't enter the dense stage. The impact acceleration, projectile velocity and displacement increase as the temperature increase. The paper spotlights the temperature's influence on the recoil characteristics of the aluminum honeycomb buffer, which provides a new idea for buffering technology of pyrotechnic devices in a complex space environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this research, the ballistic behavior of the ceramic-reinforced aluminum matrix composite plates is investigated to provide an optimal design for protecting against 7.62 mm bullet at the speed of 800 m/s experimentally and numerically. The target materials are Al5083 alloy as the metal matrix and alumina ceramic balls as the reinforcement. To simulate a 3D numerical model, ABAQUS FE code has been utilized. After validation the numerical model by experiments, the effect of ceramic ball weight percentage include 15%, 30% and 45% and the target thickness 20, 25 and 30 mm is considered on the ballistic results like the kinetic energy, residual velocity and depth of penetration. Finally, it was found that the specimen with 25 mm thickness and 30% alumina is optimum based on existing ballistic protection criteria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A methodology is developed based on the coupling of a finite element code with an optimisation module for the design of land vehicle armouring composed of lightweight aluminium alloy and high strength steel plate. Following an experiment/simulation correlation, a numerical model has been built and calibrated considering monolithic plates and then verified considering a bi-metal protection against tungsten carbide projectile mimicking the core of a 7.62x51 AP8 ammunition. In addition, a method is proposed to obtain the vres - vi curve for the full 7.62x51 AP8 bullet from the vres - vi curve obtained from the core only. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The trade e off between protection and weight is a constant consideration when designing a portable protective solution. Greater mobility is a desirable attribute and protection must therefore adapt, prompting a demand for lightweight, simple to construct, low-cost and effective ballistic protection systems. High strength and ductility, wave spreading capability and good energy absorption are key properties for ballistic protection. Four materials, polycarbonate, Kevlar®-epoxy, polyurethane foam, and aluminium alloy, possess these properties and were selected for analysis by numerical simulation. Multilayered configurations were proven to be an optimal solution, by exploiting the advantages of each material without having large penalties of mass and cost. Numerical modelling using ANSYS AUTODYN® is used to simulate monolithic and multi-layered target configurations, to obtain the penetration mitigation performance. The results are analysed to select configurations based on different requirements, such as lowest cost, lowest mass, best performance, and optimal configuration which balanced the three key parameters mentioned. The optimal configuration of Aluminium, Kevlar-Epoxy, Polyurethane, and Polycarbonate has layers with thickness of 7, 3, 38, 2 mm respectively with a total mass of 7.97 kg, total cost of $39.86 and penetration of 29.34% (14.67 mm). Polynomial relationships between performance and mass/cost are also determined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Ballistics deals with the study of projectile propulsion, flight, and impact in any medium. Different garment materials can have varying effects when it comes to the penetration of pellets into the body. Body armor has been around for a long time. Dhal, a curving strip of rhino hide, was possibly the first armor in India, used for sword fighting or defense against arrows and spears. It gave way to steel armor, which protected the body's essential organs from spear and arrow strikes. The current study is primarily concerned with how jeans material, when employed as body armor, contributes to the inquiry. The present study also examines how airgun pellets fired at various ranges affect jeans clothing wrapped around gel blocks. Results: The study concluded that when fired at varied ranges, there was no significant variation in the diameters of the entry holes on clothing material. The gel block covered with jeans clothing was not found to be more damaged. Conclusions: The findings also indicate that pellets had larger track lengths regardless of the range from which they were fired. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The presented work discusses performing a V/L (Vulnerability/Lethality) analysis on an armored tank based on an RHA (Rolled Aomogeneous Armour) equivalence. It is shown how the approach works using small examples verified with hand calculations. Other more complex examples include a set of welded plates protecting a HYBRID III 50 Percentile Male ATD (Anthropomorphic Test Device). Considered response parameters are the VAA (Vulnerable Area Assessment) damage maps, expected protection capability plot, and damage area fractions. Furthermore, different V/L analyses of the Russian T-80 tank are displayed. It is illustrated how to apply the concept of explicit finite element models to find the critical RHA equivalent armor thickness at normal impact. It is done with terminal ballistic models for three materials: RHA, Aluminum 5083-H116, and Armox 500T. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interior ballistics modelling intends to calculate physical quantities by solving equations requiring a set of input like thermodynamical properties linked to propellant or mechanical properties like friction coefficients, linked to the system, that are often difficult to assess experimentally. Using a consequent and high‐quality dataset of thousands of 155 mm modular charge experiments, we investigated how deep and machine learning approaches could build an efficient model for predicting muzzle velocity, pressure, and ignition time. After identifying the main variables influencing the physics and several potentially relevant to the machine learning and deep learning algorithms, a stacking ensemble learning model (SEL) was built. It is composed of eight machine learning algorithms and one deep learning algorithm, all as weak learner, reaching a consensus for predicting experimental outputs through a strong learner. The performance assessment, on a 900 experiments test data set that were not used in training, shows a prediction accuracy of 97 % at 1 % accuracy for muzzle velocity, 93 % at 3 % for pressure and 72 % at 5 ms for ignition time. The prediction ability for muzzle velocity within 2 m/s reaches 73 % that can be considered as sufficient. Furthermore, the SEL model even having zero knowledge about physics can discriminate gun barrel erosion effect at high and low pressure. This approach allows to imagine a way of modelling physical phenomena poorly described by physical equations or requiring unmeasurable figures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Empirical assessment of cetacean welfare to inform stranding interventions is lacking. Here, potential welfare indicators are described for two stranded pygmy killer whales (Feresa attenuata), along with euthanasia procedures and pathology of potential relevance. The animals were filmed for 3.5 and 1.5 hr, respectively, allowing assessment of 19 indicators, including animal behaviors and human interventions. Eight interventions and 19 animal behaviors were identified; 17 and 11 behaviors were displayed by animal 1 and 2, respectively. Examination of ballistics euthanasia revealed atypical projectile placement and characterized animal behavioral responses, but welfare implications could not be assessed as insensibility was not verified in-field. Pulmonary edema and renal degeneration were documented in both animals; differential etiologies include ischemia-reperfusion, shock, and/or myopathy. Potential relationships among histopathology and welfare indicators are explored to infer affective experiences. For example, simultaneous head-lifting with respiration increased over time which, alongside pulmonary edema, suggests these animals experienced breathlessness. Other likely affective states include fatigue and discomfort; there are insufficient data to estimate the intensity or duration of these experiences or to provide an overall welfare grade/score. Further data are required to validate the proposed welfare indicators and to progress development of holistic approaches to welfare assessment at cetacean strandings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Featured Application: These research results can be applied in forest fire suppression. This paper focuses on improving fire suppression performance through the use of compressed-air launching technology. A launch dynamics calculation model of a compressed-air launcher is presented, developed using VC++ programming, to simulate the acceleration process of a fire-extinguishing bomb in a barrel. By analyzing the influences of various structural and initial parameters on interior ballistics variations, the effectiveness of the calculation model and program in accurately simulating the launching process is demonstrated. The calculation results indicate that the bore pressure follows a similar trend to that of traditional gunpowder launching. Additionally, it is found that specific structural parameters, such as nozzle diameter and gas cylinder volume, have a direct impact on interior ballistics variations. Notably, the nozzle diameter positively affects the peak pressure, muzzle velocity, gas transfer efficiency, and launch efficiency. To ensure an optimal launch effect and efficiency, the nozzle diameter should be selected to be more than half of the launcher caliber. Similarly, the gas cylinder volume positively influences the peak pressure and muzzle velocity while negatively affecting the gas transfer efficiency and launch efficiency. Furthermore, the initial pressure in the gas cylinder exhibits a positive linear relationship with both the peak pressure and muzzle velocity but a negative linear relationship with the gas transfer efficiency and launch efficiency. The loading position minimally impacts the peak pressure and muzzle velocity but slightly enhances the gas transfer efficiency and launch efficiency. Finally, it is observed that launch angles do not affect the interior ballistic process. The research findings provide valuable theoretical guidance for determining the working parameters of compressed-air accelerated fire-extinguishing bombs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some quadrupeds have evolved the ability of pronking, which consists in leaping by extending the four limbs simultaneously. Pronking is typically observed in some ungulate species inhabiting grassland populated by obstacles such as shrubs, rocks and fallen branches scattered across the environment. Several possible explanations have been proposed for this peculiar behaviour, including the honest signalling of the fitness of the individual to predators or the transmission of a warning alert to conspecifics, but so far none of them has been advocated as conclusive. In this work, we investigate the kinematics of pronking on a two-dimensional landscape populated by randomly scattered obstacles. We show that when the density of obstacles is larger than a critical threshold, pronking becomes the gait that maximizes the probability of trespassing in the shortest possible time all the obstacles distributed across the distance fled, and thus represents an effective escape strategy based on a simple open-loop control. The transition between pronking and more conventional gaits such as trotting and galloping occurs at a threshold obstacle density and is continuous for a non-increasing monotone distribution of the height of obstacles, and discrete when the distribution is peaked at a non-zero height. We discuss the implications of our results for the autonomous robotic exploration on unstructured terrain.

A recently published modeling approach for the penetration into adobe and previous approaches implicitly criticized are reviewed and discussed. This article contains a note on the paper titled "Ballistic model for the prediction of penetration depth and residual velocity in adobe: A new interpretation of the ballistic resistance of earthen masonry" (DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dt.2018.07.017). Reply to the Note from Li Piani et al is linked to this article. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ongoing military conflicts, along with a constant evolution of individual protection devices, have shown an urgent need of development in terms of the armour piercing capability of standard infantry small arms ammunition. The following paper includes a brief overview of the existing armour-piercing intermediate rounds, in an effort to define the most reasonable design of a perspective armour-piercing projectile. Therefore, various projectiles were designed and evaluated in terms of their external ballistic performance for chosen initial conditions, followed by preliminary internal and terminal ballistic calculations that were performed in order to assess the most reasonable outcome.

To date, various designs have been proposed to increase the efficiency of radiative coolers with approaches such as changes in materials and their properties, size and shape of the elements, and structures geometry. In the present work, an attempt has been made to obtain this important issue by presenting an innovative strategy from a new perspective. In this strategy, by keeping the face exposed to solar energy away from the body, heat distribution can be inhibited, which leads to a decrease in body temperature. This act simultaneously provides a higher operating temperature for the emitter section, thereby enhancing the exergy of the system. On the other hand, the presence of the thermal diode allows the surface of the object to continue to radiate its heat. Hence, several experiments were designed and performed to evaluate the performance of the strategy by an experimental apparatus built for this purpose. Initially, the rectification ratio results of constructed rectifier mirrors showed that the light transmission amount in the forward path is nearly 44% higher than in the reverse direction. In the next step, the temperature measurement of the samples showed the sub-ambient temperature for the present work with a difference of 9 and 2 °C, against direct sunlight and the night sky, respectively. This model also has a high-temperature difference of about 13, 11, and 6.5 °C during the day and 1.6, 0.5, and 0.5 °C at night below the other three samples. This superiority was maintained in cloudy weather conditions as well as thermal shock stability. One of the most important applications of radiation coolers is in the aerospace industry. In this particular application, in addition to cooling, it is vital to protect the equipment against thermal shock caused by sudden and extreme temperature differences in space. Due to obtaining results such as efficient cooling rate, and high resistance to thermal shock, this concept provides a practical vision for improving the spacecraft's cooling systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]