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This article provides an overview of teaching and learning processes in research on physics and chemistry education published in NorDiNa 2005–2013. Using the didactic triangle as our theoretical framework we developed a typology to analyse the data and used this to categorise 89 related research papers, from all levels of education (primary, secondary and tertiary). The results suggest that students’ characteristics, their understanding of the content and learning outcomes are studied frequently. In contrast, science teachers are studied much less. Most papers reported studies that had been done at the teaching organisation level. Course level studies and society level studies were also frequent. However, international level studies were few in this data pool. We conclude by discussing less popular research topics in the science education field.

Education has responded to global Sustainable Development (SD) goals by drawing on a range of issue-related, context-based, and cross-curricular approaches to teaching SD. This paper aims to examine how teachers describe the content in SD and how they justify this content concerning their teaching practice. The Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) framework, with its reflective tool Content Representation (CoRe), was used in combination with semi-structured interviews to capture 18 Swedish upper-secondary science teachers’ reflections. The results indicate four themes of content that the teachers emphasise: energy and global warming, ecosystem services and biodiversity, presence of harmful substances and materials in nature, and imbalance of natural substances in nature. The teachers justified these content themes in terms of the importance of students’ gaining different perspectives (local, global, ecological, social, and economic), belief in the future, action competence, and general scientific education. The paper contributes to sustainability education research, as it focuses on teaching sustainability in the light of the PCK framework. Also, it can support and inspire teachers when they decide what content to include when teaching SD.

Embodiment and bodily experiences are vital parts of communication and learning in the early years. Children are believed to develop their thinking processes and language skills through sensory and motor experiences in early childhood education while they show, touch, mimic, and think by doing; in other words, they are learning by doing. In this paper, embodied and playful learning activities are explored through a translanguaging approach. The embodiment experiences in education can be understood as modalities of learning; this especially concerns play. Thus, the pedagogical scaffolding of these modalities by teachers can be analysed through a translanguaging approach. In Finnish early childhood education, there is a whole-child approach that considers children to be active agents in learning. Moreover, recognizing the whole child and viewing their development from social, physical, and mental perspectives have been rooted very strongly in pedagogical philosophy and practices in ECEC Finland through the playful learning approach. In this paper, we emphasize the expression of children’s embodiment and non-verbal communication when combined with spoken verbal languages and fantasy animal languages using a translanguaging approach. We focus on children’s translanguaging practices and embodied expressions. Embodiment in learning practices is essential for children in their sensory-motor or pre-perational phase of development because they show, touch, mimic, and think through an active approach. The Finnish early childhood education and care (ECEC) is known for the EduCare approach. Children are considered active agents and the whole child approach is considered the basis of educational activities and interaction (Kangas, Ojala & Venninen, 2015). Recognition of the whole child and viewing the development through social, physical, and mental aspects have been rooted very strongly in pedagogical philosophy and practices in ECEC Finland through the playful learning approach (Kangas & al. 2019). In this paper we emphasize the importance of the visual environment, design learning process, and expression of young children’s embodiment in learning in the early childhood education context. In this study we focus on 2-3 years old toddlers' visual and kinesthetic expressions of bodily learning and embodiment. Bodily learning means active learning experiences that early childhood education should include within everyday interaction and learning environment. Embodiment in learning practices is essential for children in the senso-motor or pre-operational phase of development because children show, touch, mimic and think by doing. In other words, they are learning by doing (Dewey 1916; Leinonen & Sintonen, 2014). The research questions are: 1) How do the learning materials scaffold children’s participation and meaning making? 2) How are the embodiment and active learning used as a tool for communication and interaction between children and teachers? We understand embodiment learning as visual and bodily expressions of agency, participation, and learning. These aspects are understood as modalities of interaction, language, and communication. With young children it has been shown that translanguaging takes place through movement, gestures, expressions, and emotions as well as a spoken language(s) (Leinonen & Sintonen, 2014). The study was conducted as video observation of learning design of two kindergarten groups with one teacher and 6 to 7 children in each. The study takes place in the Playful Learning Center (PLC). The PLC is a learning laboratory in University of Helsinki, that is specially designed to scaffold young children's visual and kinesthetic exploration and expression through play and playful activities (Sefton-Green et al. 2015). The observation data were analysed through content analysis using researchers’ triangulation to discuss the visual communication and embodiment themes.

Food and meals in early childhood education and care (ECEC) settings play a vital role in health promotion and sustainable development because they constitute a significant part of the children’s total diet and considerably influence their eating habits and preferences. This paper aims to find and identify traces of sustainability in food practices in a Norwegian kindergarten by analyzing each of the four dimensions of sustainability relevant to ECEC: ecological, economic, and social/cultural sustainability, and good governance. Primary data sources for this paper include interviews with kindergarten staff, supplemented with non-participatory observation during mealtime. By looking into how this kindergarten integrated sustainability thinking into their practices and organizational structures—from designing a menu to managing a meal and incorporating children’s voices in the process—this study shows that purposefully designed food provision may promote sustainability in ECEC. In addition, it draws our attention to how the kindergarten environment can serve as an arena for children to act as change agents for sustainable food practices in kindergarten settings and beyond.

This research paper presents a qualitative, single case study based on empirical material collected during a course in microteaching in Norwegian Early Childhood Teacher Education. Our research question is: What leadership skills do students develop in Early Childhood Teacher Education through embodied learning with microteaching? We aim to increase research-based knowledge of interdisciplinary and student-active leadership learning, using drama and pedagogy. This paper reports an analysis of last-year-students’ experiences of pedagogical leadership, captured through video documentation, written reflection assignments, and written evaluative assignments. We use thematic analysis, and find three main themes: embodied expression, embodied reflection, and embodied collaboration. Norwegian ECEC teachers seem to lack competence on leadership (Ministry of Education, 2018). Our research contributes on how to strengthen the students’ leadership skills. Students express that through embodied learning they have strengthened their self confidence, ability for reflection, creativity, and giving and receiving feedback, which are important leadership skills. The students report that their embodied experience has given them embodied learning.

In this paper, we explore the potentials of applying art-based research methods in science education research. Art-based methods are a range of qualitative methods that draw on performative, creative, and visual elements and thus propose innovative ways to produce knowledge in research. The paper is based on a systematic review of the literature on applying art as research methods in science education research. The review shows that only a few studies within science education use art-based methods as a methodological approach. Additionally, the literature identified through a snowball approach was thematically analysed. Four themes were identified: knowledge made available through artefacts, non-verbal language, more balanced power and positions, and time to reflect. The analysis outlines the strengths embedded within applying art-based methods and the potentials that they present to science education research. The implications for research and limitations of art-based methods are discussed.

We discuss the use of analogical models in science education using examples from online learning resources. We have conducted a teaching program for a group of 7th grade pupils and a group of science teacher students, and the main theme of this program is the use of models in chemistry. Specifically, we study the effect of an analogical model that is designed to promote understanding of the properties of molecules, related to a paper chromatography experiment. Our research indicates that analogical models can be a useful tool to convey understanding of abstract concepts and non-visible phenomena, but they hold serious pitfalls that can lead to misunderstandings amongst students if not used in a proper manner. These findings are in line with other studies. Our data indicate that respondents` knowledge about molecular properties may have increased after participating in this teaching program. However, both groups of respondents consistently used wrong properties to explain the paper chromatography experiment. Conversation transcripts and respondents` models indicate that these misconceptions are enhanced by the analogical model they were given to work with during the teaching program. Based on our findings, we give some advice for how to best present analogies in the classroom.

I studien undersøker vi hvordan grensekryssingen mellom arbeidet og styrerutdanningen bidrar til kvalifisering, sosialisering og subjektivering i rollen som leder i barnehager. Det teoretiske rammeverket er Biestas (2014) forståelse av kvalifisering, sosialisering og subjektivering som utdanningers tre funksjonsområder. Studien bygger på kvalitative data og presenterer analyse av eksamensoppgaver fra to kull ved UiT Norges arktiske universitet (n = 38). Resultatene viser at deltakerne ble mer enn faglig kvalifisert; de ble sosialisert inn i en lederrolle i studiet som ble overført til praksis i barnehagen. Deltakerne utviklet subjektivering i form av autonomi som leder overfor de øvrige ansatte og eiernivået, og de følte seg mer rustet til å håndtere spenninger, utfordringer og oppgaver. Studien viser betydningen av at utdanninger fremmer sosialisering og subjektivering gjennom en kombinasjon av faglig påfyll, veksling mellom kontekster og diskusjoner samt arbeidsplassbasert gjennomføring av mellomarbeid. ENGLISH ABSTRACT National education for leaders in early childhood education – an arena for qualification, socialization, and subjectification The study examines in which way border crossing between work and education contributes to qualification, socialization, and subjectification for leaders in early childhood education. The theoretical framework used in this article is Biesta’s (2014) understanding of qualification, socialization, and subjectivation as education’s three main domains. The study is based on qualitative data and presents an analysis of exam papers from two cohorts at UiT The Arctic University of Norway (n = 38). The results showed that the participants became more than professionally qualified, they were socialized into a role as a leader during the program. The participants developed subjectification in the form of autonomy as leaders in relation to the other employees and they felt more equipped to handle tensions, challenges and tasks associated with their position. The study shows the importance of education promoting socialization and subjectification through the combination of lectures, the crossing between contexts, discussions among peers, as well as workplace-based implementation of intermediate work.

De siste årene har begrepet transspråking vært i forskningens søkelys, og forskere har både utviklet dette begrepet teoretisk og undersøkt det empirisk i ulike utdanningskontekster. Likevel er det behov for mer kunnskap om flerspråklig didaktikk, og flere studier rapporterer om lærernes usikkerhet og behov for kompetanseheving. Målet for denne artikkelen er å systematisere empiriske studier publisert mellom 2010 og 2022 som beskriver flerspråklige praksiser i nordisk barnehagekontekst. Femti studier er inkludert i kunnskapsoversikten og analysert for å beskrive state-of-the-art på forskningsfeltets fagfront. Analysen viser hvilke metoder som har blitt brukt i relevante empiriske studier, i hvilke barnehagekontekster og barnehagesituasjoner flerspråklige praksiser har blitt beskrevet, hvilke temaer som har blitt viet oppmerksomhet og hvordan slike praksiser blir møtt av ulike aktører. ENGLISH ABSTRACT Translanguaging practices in Nordic ECEC: A review of research In recent years, the concept of translanguaging has been in the research spotlight, and researchers have developed this concept theoretically and investigated it empirically in various educational contexts. However, there is a need for more knowledge about multilingual teaching practices, and teachers’ uncertainty reported on in some studies calls for more competence development in this field. The aim of this paper is to systematize empirical studies published between 2010 and 2022 that describe multilingual practices in the Nordic early childhood education and care (ECEC) context. Fifty studies are included and analysed in this scope review to provide the state-of-the-art in the field. The analysis reveals the methods used in relevant empirical studies, the ECEC contexts and situations in which multilingual practices have been described, the topics that have received attention, and how such practices are perceived by different stakeholders.

Abstract National curriculum and teaching materials play a significant role in how students discuss and learn to understand issues which are controversial in society. However, the ways curriculum content aims to answer to rapidly changing political landscapes also influence the phenomena that the curriculum aims to unpack. In this article, we analyse one such phenomenon. Our aim is to investigate how the curriculum content about the Romani people in Norway has been used in the ongoing negotiation of the group’s position in Norwegian education and society. In the Green Paper NOU 2015: 7 Assimi­lation and Resistance – Norwegian policies towards Tater/Romani people from 1850 to the present, it is suggested that the curriculum should include more knowledge about Romani. In this article, we analyse the consultation process that was initiated after the publication of the Green Paper. We focus on how the submissions by individuals and institutions are discussing the curriculum content concerning the Romani. Our analysis illuminates how a specific curriculum content can have effects and play a part in on­going issues outside of the school context. We have focused on reading the positions on the curriculum in light of the contexts of historical justice for the Romani, and of multi­culturalism in education. The analysis illustrates that, how controversial societal issues are handled in the curriculum, can impact societal processes outside of the classroom. Keywords: controversial societal issues in education, historical justice in education, multiculturalism in education, Romani, curriculum studies Læreplanen som ei kontroversiell sak: Forhandlingar om romanifolket sin posisjon i utdanning og i samfunnet Samandrag Nasjonale læreplanar og undervisningsmateriell spelar ei viktig rolle i korleis elevar diskuterer og lærer om kontroversielle spørsmål i samfunnet. Samtidig vil måten lære­planen sitt innhald siktar mot å svare på politiske landskap i rask endring, også påverke dei fenomena som læreplanen omhandlar. I denne artikkelen analyserer vi eit slikt feno­men. Målet er å undersøkje korleis læreplanen sitt innhald om romanifolket i Noreg har blitt nytta i pågåande forhandlingar om gruppa sin posisjon i norsk skule og samfunn. I NOU 2015: 7 Assimilering og motstand – Norsk politikk overfor taterne/romanifolket fra 1850 til i dag blir det foreslått at læreplanen bør inkludere meir kunnskap om romani­folket. I denne artikkelen analyserer vi høringsrunden som blei initiert etter publiseringa av NOU 2015: 7. Vi fokuserer på korleis høringssvara frå både individ og institusjonar diskuterer læreplanen sitt innhald om romanifolket. Vår analyse kastar ljos over korleis eit konkret innhald i læreplanen kan ha effekt og spele ei rolle i pågåande prosessar utanfor skulekonteksten. Vi har fokusert på korleis dei ulike posisjonane til læreplanen sitt innhald kan lesast i ljos av kontekstane om historisk rettferd for romanifolket og av multikulturalisme i utdanning. Analysen illustrerer korleis måtane som kontroversielle samfunnsspørsmål blir handsama på i læreplanen, også kan påverke samfunnsprosessar som går føre seg utanfor klasserommet. Nøkkelord: kontroversielle samfunnsspørsmål i utdanning, historisk rettferd i utdanning, multikulturalisme i utdanning, romanifolket, læreplanstudiar

Hensikten med artikkelen er å undersøke hvordan deltakere i en videreutdanning for praksislærere i en videregående skole diskuterer muligheter og utfordringer i praksis-opplæringen i sine eksamenstekster i lys av hovedtrekk fra teori om mesterlære. Som yrkesfaglærerutdanner, tidligere yrkesfaglærer og praksislærer, ønsker jeg å undersøke om og hvordan en praktisk kunnskapstradisjon, hvor modell-læring inngår, og som har sitt utgangspunkt i praksis og praksisfellesskap, preger diskusjonen om utfordringer og muligheter i dagens praksisopplæring (Nielsen & Kvale, 1999a). Artikkelens utgangs-punkt er 10 av 31 gruppebaserte eksamensbesvarelser fra en videreutdanning (7,5 studiepoeng) gjennomført ved én av NTNUs universitetsskoler i vårsemesteret 2016. I artikkelen besvares følgende problemstilling: Hvordan bruker praksislærerne hoved-trekk fra mesterlære i drøftinger av utfordringer og muligheter i praksisveiledning? Tematisk tekstanalyse av eksamensoppgavene (Widén, 2017) identifiserte tre hoved-trekk fra mesterlære i lærernes drøfting av organiseringen av praksisveiledning. Temaene er 1) Modell-læring, 2) Relasjonskompetanse, og 3) Praksisfellesskap. Praksislærernes forståelse knyttes til tre funn: 1) Praksislærerne ønsker å vise frem sin praksis for studentene. 2) Praksislærerens relasjonskompetanse og kommunikative kompetanse er grunnleggende viktig i rollen som modell-lærer. 3) Læring i praksis-fellesskap – studentene lærer av flere praksislærere/mestere. Nøkkelord: mesterlære, modell-læring, praksislærer, praksisfellesskap, relasjonskompetanse, praksisveiledning i lærerutdanning Apprenticeship in practice supervision in teacher education: Individual, relational or in community of practice? A study of exam texts Abstract The purpose of the article is to investigate how participants in a course offered as further education for practice teachers in an upper secondary school discuss opportunities and challenges in the practice training in light of main features of the theory of apprenticeship. As a vocational teacher educator, former vocational teacher and practice teacher, I want to investigate whether and how a practical knowledge tradition, in which model-learning is included, and which is based on practice and communities of practice, characterizes the discussion of challenges in today's practice training (Nielsen & Kvale, 1999a). The article is based on 10 out of 31 group-based exam papers from a further education course (7.5 credits) completed at one of NTNU's university schools during the spring semester 2016. The article answers the following research question: How do the practice teachers use main features of apprenticeship in discussions of challenges and opportunities in practice supervision? The thematic text analysis of the exam papers (Widén, 2016) identified three main features from apprenticeship in the teachers' discussion of the organization of practice supervision. The themes are 1) Model-learning, 2) Relational competence, and 3) Community of practice. The practice teachers' reflection is linked to three findings: 1) The practice teachers want to showcase their practice to the students. 2) Relational competence and the practice teacher's communicative competence are fundamentally important in the role as a model teacher. 3) Practice in working communities – students learn from several practice teachers/ masters. Keywords: apprenticeship, model-learning, practice teacher, community of practice, relational competence, practice supervision in teacher education

This paper elucidates the role of the sciences within education for sustainable development as it is reflected on the World Environmental Education Congress (WEEC), a leading international conference since 2003. A historical perspective, and observations, conversations, interviews and a look at the presentations of the WEEC 2015 and WEEC 2017, this study reveals an underrepresentation of science education, while a dominance was registered on WEEC conferences for ten years ago. Both the WEEC 2015 and WEEC 2017 provided plenty of information about science related realities, but little about how to get children and the youth to understand them. Only few of the papers and posters were addressed to children’s and pupils learning related to physics or biogeochemical basic understanding. The understanding of natural interrelationships and concepts is essential for children and the youth for to become informed decision-makers and active participants in a sustainable society.

Vocational education and training is amongst the educational areas drawing the biggest attention by mass media and a key topic of political debate in Sweden. This is by no means surprising if we take into account that nearly half of Swedish youngster follows any of the vocational training lines offered at upper secondary education. But, is this a unique 'Swedish discussion'? Are there other international frame factors influencing and some how conditioning the discussion about the strategic importance of VET? If, so which are these frame factors? This paper attempts to give initial answer to these questions by contextualizing VET discussion in Sweden from an international perspective that includes social transformations from modernity to the so called postmodernity and the impact on work market demands. The paper present these new demands, as well as qualifications required. The chapter uses a wide range of references that includes Education For All (EFA) Global Monitoring Report of 2012 focused on the third goal of Education for All, that is to ensure that all young people have the opportunity to acquire skills. The urgency of reaching this goal has sharpened acutely since 2000 as a consequence of a global economic downturn impacting on unemployment. The paper intends to contribute to better understanding of the challenges as well to create awareness and encourage discussion in different contexts and levels, that is vocational school, VET teacher training, policy making and VET planning.

Teacher education programs have an especially important role in reorienting education to realise education for sustainable development (ESD). In this paper, we investigate how ESD can be realised in science teacher education and we present findings from a case study in a Norwegian teacher education institution that has the overall aim of educating teachers who can contribute to sustainable development. Data was collected through participant observation and interviews, and, together with instructional artefacts and student assignments, analysed based on a model for science ESD. The paper provides an example of how ESD can be realised through a strengths model where ESD is founded in the strengths among the teacher educators and existing teaching practices. The results indicate that an emphasis on experiential learning and sociocultural learning theory builds a thorough foundation for ESD. However, the teaching has to be explicit in order to reach all student teachers.

This study analyses research reports on textbooks in genetics education regarding the fact-value distinction. From the perspective of four possible fact-value-related discourses, I have conducted a content analysis of 19 research reports on genetics in textbooks after 2002 (articles, book chapters, and one paper based on a conference presentation.) The general background for this review is an underlying interest in combining and integrating academic achievements and value(s) education in the context of science education in the field of genetics and human beings, by, at the same time realizing the challenges in practicing the principle of interdisciplinarity. This “interest” has been illustrated both in the science education literature and in general educational theory during the last decades. Our study falls into two parts. First, we conducted a qualitative interpretative content analysis. Second, we used a quantitative approach by counting value-related words. We identified the discourses on a continuum, from single-academic-discipline-oriented discourse (based on the natural sciences) to interdisciplinary value-oriented discourse involving the social sciences and/or the humanities with their related concepts and debates. Based on our study we can recommend future researchers on textbooks to be aware of the discourses we have exemplified and therefore explicitly delimitate their study accordingly. In this context one research field could be to study what textbooks say about how to discuss value questions in the context of science and science education.

Intensjonen med denne artikkelen er å analysere og diskutere hvordan eksamensformer og oppgavetekster i den nye barnehagelærerutdanningen bidrar til en integrert, profesjonsrettet og forskningsbasert utdanning. Eksamensoppgavetekster gitt ved ni norske høgskoler og universiteter, blir analysert ut fra profesjonsteori og teorier om forskningsbasert utdannelse. Analysene viser at oppgavetekstenes form og innhold fra over halvparten av institusjonene som er undersøkt, ikke skiller seg nevneverdig fra tidligere oppgaver. Vi stiller spørsmål ved om disse oppgavetypene og -tekstene oppfyller kravet om at barnehagelærerutdanningen skal være en integrert, profesjonsrettet og forskningsbasert utdanning. The purpose of this article is to analyze and discuss whether exam types and texts in the new Early Childhood Teacher Education contribute to an integrated, professional and research-based education. Examination papers given by nine Norwegian colleges and universities are analyzed within the framework of theory on vocational education and theory on research-based education. The analyzes show that in more than half of the institutions investigated, the content and form of the examination papers do not differ significantly from previous assignments. We question whether these exam types and texts fulfill the demand of the Early Childhood Teacher Education to be both integrated, professionally oriented and based on research-based knowledge.

I lys av klimaendringer og tap av natur, blir det å jobbe målrettet med bærekraftig utvikling og utforsking av naturen stadig viktigere for barnehagefeltet. For barnehagelærerutdanningen blir det da nødvending å utvikle undervisning som fremmer både kunnskaper, holdninger og refleksjoner knyttet til natur og bærekraftig utvikling. I denne artikkelen vil vi ta for oss et verktøy for å måle naturtilknytning: nature relatedness scale. Vi ønsker å undersøke og diskutere hvordan påstander fra verktøyet kan fremme refleksjon rundt praksiser, holdninger og kunnskaper relatert til bærekraftig utvikling i barnehagen. Vi har brukt påstandene fra skalaen til å utvikle et påstandsspill som har blitt testet ut av studenter fra arbeidsplassbasert barnehagelærerutdanning. Empirien i studien består av observasjon og dokumentasjon av studentenes dialoger under gjennomføring av spillet, og vi har spurt studentene om hvordan de opplever relevansen av dette for barnehagelæreryrket. Gjennom diskusjonen mellom studentene i påstandsspillet kom barnehageperspektivet fram under de fleste påstandene. Studentene rapporterte at de ble mer bevisste på sine holdninger og handlinger rundt arbeid med bærekraftig utvikling i barnehagen, og vi mener dette derfor kan være et nyttig verktøy i utdanning for bærekraftig utvikling. ENGLISH ABSTRACT Statement game as a tool in education for sustainable development in early childhood teacher education Considering climate change and loss of nature, working with sustainable development and exploration of nature becomes ever more important in the field of early childhood education. It is therefore necessary to develop teaching practices that highlight both knowledge, attitudes, and reflections related to nature and sustainable development in early childhood teacher education. In this paper, we will explore how statements from a scale called “nature relatedness scale” can stimulate reflections on practices, attitudes and knowledge related to sustainable development in early childhood education. We have used the statements to develop a statement game and tested the game with students in work-based early childhood teacher education. We observed and documented students’ dialogues during the statement game and asked them if they found this relevant for their profession. During the discussions of most of the statements, early childhood perspectives emerged. The students stated that the discussions raised their awareness of working with sustainable development in early childhood education, and we therefore find that this can be a useful tool in education for sustainable development.

Det er aukande etterspurnad etter kunnskap om korleis ein kan leggje til rette for utdanning for berekraftig utvikling i barnehagen. Vi vil bidra med utvikling av leikande praksisar, avgrensa til deltaking i brettspel, sidan leiken er sett som barn sin måte å vere i verda og som ei transformativ kraft. Problemstillinga er: Kva innspel har barnehagelærarstudentar og barnehagelærarar til bruk av brettspel som utdanning for berekraftig utvikling i barnehagen? Materiale er henta frå to verkstadar; ein med studentar og ein med barnehagelærarar, og byggjer på eit fyrsteutkast av eit brettspel laga for vaksne. Observasjonar frå verkstadane og deltakarane sine forslag til korleis spelet kan utviklast for å vere relevant for barnehagebarn, er analysert ut frå ei teoretisk forståing av leikbasert utdanning for berekraftig utvikling. Analysen viser overlapping mellom økologiske, økonomiske, sosiale og kulturelle tilnærmingar til berekraft og berekraftig styresett, og dei leikande elementa er med i alle forslaga til brettspelet. Etter at form og innhald i spelet er vidareutvikla ut frå funna våre, vil vi prøve ut spelet saman med barn. English abstract Using board games to facilitate education for sustainable development in Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) There is a growing need for knowledge on how to facilitate education for sustainable development in Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC). Since play is considered children’s way of being in the world, and as a transformative force, we aim to investigate what should be taken into consideration when facilitating playing practices. In our study, the practices are manifested as a board game. The paper is organised around the research question: What suggestions do ECEC teacher students and teachers in ECEC institutions forward to develop a boardgame for education for sustainable development in ECEC? Material for analysis is based on two workshops: one with students and one with teachers and contains observations from the workshops and suggestions for how a boardgame for adults could be changed to be relevant for young children. The material is analysed based on theorised characteristics of play and education for sustainable development. The analysis reveals that the suggestions for revisions of the boardgame embrace play and reflect ecologic, economic, social, and cultural approaches to sustainability, together with sustainable governance. The form and content of the board game will be revised based on these results, and then be tested together with children.

En av nyckelfrågorna inom hållbar utveckling handlar om fördelning av resurser, en fråga som berör värderingar och har flertalet matematiska egenskaper. Denna artikel fokuserar på förskolebarns kollektiva resonemang om fördelning av mängder, när matematiken dominerar resonemanget alternativt ersätts av eller kombineras med hållbara etiska resonemang. Två barn, 4 och 6 år, löste tillsammans sex olika fall. Data ana­lyserades med två ramverk: ett som handlar om kollektiva matematiska resonemang och fokuserar på innehållet i argumenten, och ett som handlar om processen att skapa etiska resonemang. Resultaten visar att enkla situationer löstes främst med matematiska resonemang med transformationen delningsdivison, men där värderingar blev påtagliga tog hållbara etiska resonemang över. Det fanns också en överlappning där matematik användes för att styrka ett etiskt resonemang. Barnen demonstrerade resonemangskompetens och implikationer av detta diskuteras. English abstract When fair share is not equal One of the key questions within sustainable development is allocation of resources, a question that comprises values and has several mathematical properties. This paper focuses on preschool children’s collective reasoning about sharing, when mathematical reasoning dominates or is replaced or combined by sustainable ethical reasoning. Two children, age 4 and 6, solved six cases together. Data was analysed using two frameworks: one deals with collective mathematical reasoning and focus on the components of the arguments, and one about the process creating ethical reasoning. The results show that basic situations were often solved by mathematical reasoning concerning division, but when values were explicit, sustainable, ethical reasoning was used. There was also an overlap, where mathematical arguments were used to back up ethical reasoning. The conclusion is that the children demonstrated reasoning competence, and some implications are discussed.

Most extant studies examining augmented reality (AR) have focused on the technology itself. This paper presents findings addressing the issue of AR for educational purposes based on a sequential survey distributed to 35 expert science teachers, ICT designers and science education researchers from four countries. There was consensus among experts in relation to a focus on ‘learning before technology’, and they in particular supplemented affordances identified in literature with perspectives related to interactivity, a creator perspective and inquiry based science. Expert reflections were condensed into innovative dimensions in a framework with nine continua. The framework can be used to illustrate how, and to what extent, an innovative educational perspective, such as that focusing on engaging learners in creating and/or inquiring can be addressed in a particular AR design, and is in the paper exemplified for use in both analysis of existing educational AR and in design of new second-generation AR.

Despite international emphasis on the advantage of children’s exploration, there is limited knowledge about how availability of physical materials influence children´s exploratory activities. This paper presents findings from a study that examined the availability and use of materials related to science in 26 Norwegian kindergartens. Data were collected by kindergarten teacher students during their practice in kindergartens. Quantitative data were gathered using checklists, qualitative data by observations of children´s activities involving science related materials. The quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed separately and then together using the three categories of exploratory activities introduced by Neuman: formal activities, informal activities and incidental activities. Our findings surface that most kindergartens had much of the materials listed in the checklist, but much of it was locked up and only a few of the objects, such as vinyl animals and books, were available for children´s informal activities. We also found that formal activities gave stimuli to informal activities, which highlights the importance of including children in collective activities as working with theme or projects over time. Only one of the activities in our data was categorized as incidental. Our findings indicate that benefits of using materials to extend children`s exploration are not taken fully advantage of and should be further discussed and highlighted.

Since 2015, discussions on how to educate the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have been under the scope of the international community, while research in SDG education in particular for early childhood education is still scarce. This paper builds on focus groups discussions with pre-school personel to explore challenges and opportunities with educating and learning the SDGs for children between 1-5 years. The analysis shows that (1) despite the intention of an interdisciplinary teaching, questions about sustainable development and Agenda 2030 tend to be fragmented, 2) preschool teachers perceive the organisational conditions of preschools as beneficial for teaching for sustainable development, and 3) the children's interest is given great importance and is often seen as a prerequisite for the teachers work, but at the same time a dilemma is expressed with losing goals and focus.

Despite international emphasis on the advantage of children’s exploration, there is limited knowledge about how availability of physical materials influence children´s exploratory activities. This paper presents findings from a study that examined the availability and use of materials related to science in 26 Norwegian kindergartens. Data were collected by kindergarten teacher students during their practice in kindergartens. Quantitative data were gathered using checklists, qualitative data by observations of children´s activities involving science related materials. The quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed separately and then together using the three categories of exploratory activities introduced by Neuman: formal activities, informal activities and incidental activities. Our findings surface that most kindergartens had much of the materials listed in the checklist, but much of it was locked up and only a few of the objects, such as vinyl animals and books, were available for children´s informal activities. We also found that formal activities gave stimuli to informal activities, which highlights the importance of including children in collective activities as working with theme or projects over time. Only one of the activities in our data was categorized as incidental. Our findings indicate that benefits of using materials to extend children`s exploration are not taken fully advantage of and should be further discussed and highlighted.

Since 2015, discussions on how to educate the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have been under the scope of the international community, while research in SDG education in particular for early childhood education is still scarce. This paper builds on focus groups discussions with pre-school personel to explore challenges and opportunities with educating and learning the SDGs for children between 1-5 years. The analysis shows that (1) despite the intention of an interdisciplinary teaching, questions about sustainable development and Agenda 2030 tend to be fragmented, 2) preschool teachers perceive the organisational conditions of preschools as beneficial for teaching for sustainable development, and 3) the children's interest is given great importance and is often seen as a prerequisite for the teachers work, but at the same time a dilemma is expressed with losing goals and focus.

In this paper we present a survey-based study on multilingual practices in 47 ECEC (early childhood education and care) centres, mainly in eastern Norway. Our main concern was to investigate the languages known by staff and children and to explore the extent to which these languages are in active use in day-to-day activities. Our data showed that both staff and children in the selected ECEC groups spoke several languages in addition to Norwegian. Even so, a considerable proportion of the languages known by staff and children were never or rarely in use, and in many ECECs the use of languages other than Norwegian mainly took place when parents were present or when children played without staff interference. We discuss our findings considering theories of multilingual education, asking how ECEC staff can work in order to allow for languages other than Norwegian to be more explicitly considered part of the ECEC language learning environment.

The aim of this paper is to provide insights into nine primary school teachers’ concerns and instructional needs in biology and mathematics, grades 1 to 6. By using Content Representation, combined with Learning Study in an action research project, teachers were encouraged to reflect on their conceptions, processes of instructing and pupil learning. From concerns articulated by teachers three instructional needs emerged: (i) to make subject progression, especially in biology, and pupil learning more visible, (ii) to develop mathematics teaching in order to change pupils’ views of the subject, and (iii) to develop teachers’ subject matter knowledge and teaching in an ongoing collaborative process. The paper argues that in order to stimulate teacher professional development it is important to make teacher concerns and thereby needs explicit. They help teachers to identify and reflect on relations between teacher subject matter knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge and pupil learning.

The purpose of this article is to provide representations of and to compare meanings attributed to the concept of learning in Early Childhood Education and Care policy. More concrete, the article provides a comparison between documents from Norway and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, OECD. The comparison is based on the OECD- report Quality Matters in Early Childhood Education and Care. Norway (Taguma et al. 2013), and White Paper no. 24 (2012-2013) The Future of Early Childhood Education and Care. Neither the OECD-report nor the Norwegian White Paper has any legal levers to influence Norway, but the documents advise a national agenda, described as “soft governance”. The analysis is made on the basis of Bernstein’s code theory and his concept of classification. I denne artikkelen gjøres det en sammenligning mellom styringsdokumenter for barnehagen fra henholdsvis Norge og OECD. Artikkelen tar utgangspunkt i OECD-rapporten Quality Matters in Early Childhood Education and Care. Norway. (Taguma m.fl., 2013) og St.meld.nr. 24 (2012-2013) Framtidens barnehage. Dette er ikke lovregulerende eller rådgivende dokumenter, men kan sies å ha stor påvirkningskraft ved å styre gjennom begrepsbruk, noe som omtales som “soft governance”. Hensikten med sammenligningen er å analysere hva slags betydninger læringsbegrepet tillegges i de ulike dokumentene. Analysene er gjort med utgangspunkt i Bernsteins kodeteori.

The COVID-19 pandemic forced universities to engage in a transformation regarding how education is provided. The pandemic led to education being pushed in a new direction regarding digital practices. This paper discusses the implications related to this transformation by asking the following research question: After being subjected to the imposed and extensive use of online education due to the pandemic, what implications can be found when we examine pre-service teachers’ digital competence and attitudes towards and use of digital technology? This study is based on data from Norwegian pre-service teachers in their third year of an early childhood education program. Data was collected during the spring semester of 2020 and 2021. The data were subjected to regression and correlation analyses to investigate how the pre-service teachers’ use of technology, attitudes and digital competence may have been affected 10 months into this educational transformation. The main difference found between the two groups of preservice teachers is related to their attitudes and how these attitudes relate to the use of digital technology. Our findings indicate the importance of not neglecting attitude as an important component of professional digital competence. Attitude seems to be the component that is most affected by pandemic-related consequences for education, when looking at the dynamics between use of technology, professional digital competence and attitudes.

Inquiry-based science education is highly emphasized in recent curricula. Our paper aims to find out more about the connections between science teachers' orientation toward the textbook and the enabling of inquiry-based teaching. It will be important to map this connection better in improving how to facilitate inquiry-based education. The textbook has a strong position in the Norwegian school system, and teaching based on the textbook is often seen as oppositional to inquiry-based teaching. On a national level, more research about the use of textbooks and its implications for science teaching is needed. A survey has been conducted among science teachers at 68 lower secondary schools in three (recently merged into two) counties in Norway. The survey data is used to measure the textbook’s importance for science teachers, and the extent to which the textbook contributes to inquiry in science teaching. Results show that the textbook has a central role for science teachers. The textbook is partly perceived as supportive for facilitating inquiry activities, especially for textbook-oriented teachers. At the same time, the study shows that those teachers who frequently facilitate inquiry are not closely tied to the textbook.

This special issue of TechneA includes papers that were first presented at the ‘2nd International Conference for Design Education Researchers: Design Learning for Tomorrow - Design Education from Kindergarten to PhD’.. The conference hosted by DRS and CUMULUS brought together all levels of education from kindergarten to PhD, which furthered discussion about design education as a continuous building up of design capabilities. We have therefore in this special issue chosen to invite four papers that present different views on design education at the primary and secondary school levels and for non-designers.

Through a series of practice-based narratives, drawn from specific experiences in a higher-education context in Sweden, the affordances of multimodal objects are reflected upon. In this work, multimodal objects are considered as boundary objects that can facilitate learning conversations, both cognitive and affective. Current work in science education research has highlighted the role that boundary-crossings between knowledge and values offer teaching and learning. The author believes such boundary-crossings to be essential in the current context of prolific species extinction, on a planet in which human-made materials now outweigh the living biomass; a planet in which life, death, self and other are ‘braided vulnerabilities’ across a complex socio-biological landscape. Thus, in these iterative, practice-based reflections on specific teaching moments, this paper offers small steps towards reimagining biology didactics in the ‘post-normal’ conditions of the 21st century. In so doing, possibilities for multimodal objects in contemporary biology didactics are reflected upon and suggested.

Denmark has a strong foundation in terms of sustainability, making the country an interesting backdrop for studying how the overarching sustainability agenda has shaped education practice. This study investigated the scope and status of sustainability education targeted at grade 4-6 students in Danish out-ofschool science education institutions, such as natural history museums, science and technology museums, science centres, zoos and aquaria. First, a desktop review took place to map educational programmes with sustainability content. Second, five representative programmes were selected for further study. Thematic analysis of observation field notes and interviews with educators and teachers yielded four themes that collectively defined the sustainability programmes: institution, formal education, content and pedagogy. The final sections of the paper contextualise these themes, and discuss their implications for sustainability education in out-of-school practice. The study concludes by offering reflections on constructive future pathways for sustainability education.

This paper explores the experiences of first-year biotechnology students during the first eight months of their studies. We study what the students expected to be challenging when entering the programme, and what they eventually experienced as challenging as they progressed further into the programme. Building on qualitative data (video-diaries, interviews and open-ended survey responses), we analyse the dimensions of challenges, the congruence and the students’ sense of belonging. We find that students were mainly challenged by the organisational dimension (lack of clarity in goals and course organisation). The social relations to peers were pivotal for the students as learning support when managing the challenges and decoding expectations, but also for keeping up the motivation. We argue that in order to support the students’ sense of belonging and their academic achievements, the study programmes should facilitate the formation of social networks and consider the course organisation and management.

In the teaching of scientific subjects, several semiotic resources such as images, texts, physical models, audio recordings and film have been used for a long time. In recent years, digital learning resources have also been added, such as simulations and virtual and augmented realities. In this paper, an investigation of how pupils understand the science of hearing and the anatomy of the ear with the support of various semiotic resources is performed by a teacher/researcher. How do pupils reflect on their understanding of hearing when they use different semiotic resources in teaching? In this investigation five different semiotic resources are compared. The analysis of questionnaires, interviews and lesson observations shows how the pupils move between the different modalities. The findings indicate that pupils can benefit from using carefully chosen different semiotic resources. It could also matter in which order the semiotic resources are used. The study shows that embodied cognition plays a prominent role, such as touching a physical model of an ear. Furthermore, understanding the anatomy of the ear is described as better using a physical model, while understanding the process of hearing is described as better using a simulation. These findings can be useful for teachers, student teachers, teacher educators and teaching aid developers.

Through a series of practice-based narratives, drawn from specific experiences in a higher-education context in Sweden, the affordances of multimodal objects are reflected upon. In this work, multimodal objects are considered as boundary objects that can facilitate learning conversations, both cognitive and affective. Current work in science education research has highlighted the role that boundary-crossings between knowledge and values offer teaching and learning. The author believes such boundary-crossings to be essential in the current context of prolific species extinction, on a planet in which human-made materials now outweigh the living biomass; a planet in which life, death, self and other are ‘braided vulnerabilities’ across a complex socio-biological landscape. Thus, in these iterative, practice-based reflections on specific teaching moments, this paper offers small steps towards reimagining biology didactics in the ‘post-normal’ conditions of the 21st century. In so doing, possibilities for multimodal objects in contemporary biology didactics are reflected upon and suggested.

Denmark has a strong foundation in terms of sustainability, making the country an interesting backdrop for studying how the overarching sustainability agenda has shaped education practice. This study investigated the scope and status of sustainability education targeted at grade 4-6 students in Danish out-ofschool science education institutions, such as natural history museums, science and technology museums, science centres, zoos and aquaria. First, a desktop review took place to map educational programmes with sustainability content. Second, five representative programmes were selected for further study. Thematic analysis of observation field notes and interviews with educators and teachers yielded four themes that collectively defined the sustainability programmes: institution, formal education, content and pedagogy. The final sections of the paper contextualise these themes, and discuss their implications for sustainability education in out-of-school practice. The study concludes by offering reflections on constructive future pathways for sustainability education.

Denmark has a strong foundation in terms of sustainability, making the country an interesting backdrop for studying how the overarching sustainability agenda has shaped education practice. This study investigated the scope and status of sustainability education targeted at grade 4-6 students in Danish out-ofschool science education institutions, such as natural history museums, science and technology museums, science centres, zoos and aquaria. First, a desktop review took place to map educational programmes with sustainability content. Second, five representative programmes were selected for further study. Thematic analysis of observation field notes and interviews with educators and teachers yielded four themes that collectively defined the sustainability programmes: institution, formal education, content and pedagogy. The final sections of the paper contextualise these themes, and discuss their implications for sustainability education in out-of-school practice. The study concludes by offering reflections on constructive future pathways for sustainability education.

In the teaching of scientific subjects, several semiotic resources such as images, texts, physical models, audio recordings and film have been used for a long time. In recent years, digital learning resources have also been added, such as simulations and virtual and augmented realities. In this paper, an investigation of how pupils understand the science of hearing and the anatomy of the ear with the support of various semiotic resources is performed by a teacher/researcher. How do pupils reflect on their understanding of hearing when they use different semiotic resources in teaching? In this investigation five different semiotic resources are compared. The analysis of questionnaires, interviews and lesson observations shows how the pupils move between the different modalities. The findings indicate that pupils can benefit from using carefully chosen different semiotic resources. It could also matter in which order the semiotic resources are used. The study shows that embodied cognition plays a prominent role, such as touching a physical model of an ear. Furthermore, understanding the anatomy of the ear is described as better using a physical model, while understanding the process of hearing is described as better using a simulation. These findings can be useful for teachers, student teachers, teacher educators and teaching aid developers.

In the teaching of scientific subjects, several semiotic resources such as images, texts, physical models, audio recordings and film have been used for a long time. In recent years, digital learning resources have also been added, such as simulations and virtual and augmented realities. In this paper, an investigation of how pupils understand the science of hearing and the anatomy of the ear with the support of various semiotic resources is performed by a teacher/researcher. How do pupils reflect on their understanding of hearing when they use different semiotic resources in teaching? In this investigation five different semiotic resources are compared. The analysis of questionnaires, interviews and lesson observations shows how the pupils move between the different modalities. The findings indicate that pupils can benefit from using carefully chosen different semiotic resources. It could also matter in which order the semiotic resources are used. The study shows that embodied cognition plays a prominent role, such as touching a physical model of an ear. Furthermore, understanding the anatomy of the ear is described as better using a physical model, while understanding the process of hearing is described as better using a simulation. These findings can be useful for teachers, student teachers, teacher educators and teaching aid developers.

Through a series of practice-based narratives, drawn from specific experiences in a higher-education context in Sweden, the affordances of multimodal objects are reflected upon. In this work, multimodal objects are considered as boundary objects that can facilitate learning conversations, both cognitive and affective. Current work in science education research has highlighted the role that boundary-crossings between knowledge and values offer teaching and learning. The author believes such boundary-crossings to be essential in the current context of prolific species extinction, on a planet in which human-made materials now outweigh the living biomass; a planet in which life, death, self and other are ‘braided vulnerabilities’ across a complex socio-biological landscape. Thus, in these iterative, practice-based reflections on specific teaching moments, this paper offers small steps towards reimagining biology didactics in the ‘post-normal’ conditions of the 21st century. In so doing, possibilities for multimodal objects in contemporary biology didactics are reflected upon and suggested.

This paper explores the experiences of first-year biotechnology students during the first eight months of their studies. We study what the students expected to be challenging when entering the programme, and what they eventually experienced as challenging as they progressed further into the programme. Building on qualitative data (video-diaries, interviews and open-ended survey responses), we analyse the dimensions of challenges, the congruence and the students’ sense of belonging. We find that students were mainly challenged by the organisational dimension (lack of clarity in goals and course organisation). The social relations to peers were pivotal for the students as learning support when managing the challenges and decoding expectations, but also for keeping up the motivation. We argue that in order to support the students’ sense of belonging and their academic achievements, the study programmes should facilitate the formation of social networks and consider the course organisation and management.

This paper explores the experiences of first-year biotechnology students during the first eight months of their studies. We study what the students expected to be challenging when entering the programme, and what they eventually experienced as challenging as they progressed further into the programme. Building on qualitative data (video-diaries, interviews and open-ended survey responses), we analyse the dimensions of challenges, the congruence and the students’ sense of belonging. We find that students were mainly challenged by the organisational dimension (lack of clarity in goals and course organisation). The social relations to peers were pivotal for the students as learning support when managing the challenges and decoding expectations, but also for keeping up the motivation. We argue that in order to support the students’ sense of belonging and their academic achievements, the study programmes should facilitate the formation of social networks and consider the course organisation and management.

This paper reports on student peer collaboration in an online environment in an international shared curriculum, the Global Climate Exchange. Four cohorts of students (age 16 -19) from Canada, China, Norway and Sweden (n=157) were engaged in four wiki-based activities where they collaborated with peers locally and internationally. Previously, impact from Global Climate Exchange on students’ conceptual understanding was analysed, indicating a positive impact which might be explained by the amount of interactions with peers and international peer collaboration. This paper looks further into the details of the students’ peer interactions in terms of how they communicate in the online Global Climate Exchange learning environment. The study revealed that communication between international peers might be more constructive than when communication is limited to national peers. This might be a possible explanation for our previously findings indicating that international peer collaboration may well be an approach to enhance students’ conceptual understanding of climate change.

This paper reports from a qualitative study of physics students in upper secondary school participating in a camp at the Andøya Rocket Range in Northern Norway. The students work together with students from other schools, engineers and physicists for three days, following lectures and practical work related to the physics curriculum. The students report exciting, social and creative experiences through solving practical problems. Interest, competence, performance and recognition are identified as important factors for students physics identity (Hazari, Sonnert, Sadler, & Shanahan, 2010). This paper discusses how this kind of experience may contribute to the development of more physics-related identities among students in upper secondary school, and how this in turn may influence the students’ further career choices.

This paper investigates intersections of gender and the teaching and learning of science in case studies of two male primary school student teachers, exploring how these student teachers negotiate identities as teachers of science. The project works from dual theoretical starting points. Firstly, the project is founded in a feminist post-structural understanding of gender as performative, something ‘done’ in a social context rather than an inherent characteristic of a person. Secondly, learning is, following situated learning theory, conceptualised as involving the constitution of an identity. Empirically, the paper draws on semi-structured interviews with two primary school student teachers specialising in science. The paper explores the two student teachers’ classed and gendered interpretations of school science, in particular how they use these interpretations as a means for them as male teachers to fit into the primary teacher role with its feminine connotations. Finally, some implications for teacher education are discussed.

This paper presents Swedish results from the Relevance of Science Education (ROSE) study, which is part of a large world-wide comparative research study based at the University of Oslo. The national sample was collected in spring 2003 and originates from 751 students from 29 schools, most of whom were 15 years old. In an additional study data from primary students were collected in spring 2005, with a smaller sample of 112. Significant differences in content orientation between the primary and secondary boys and girls were found and are discussed in the context of young people’s interest in science and technology and the public function of those knowledge fields as a part of education. Earlier studies suggest the benefit of more applicative contexts as the children move through compulsory school. This statement is challenged to some degree in this paper and a stronger need to understand how the transition from primary to secondary level and specific contents are related is discussed. This is due to indications that students’ content orientations are partially dependant on age and there are significant differences due to gender to consider. A deeper examination of those elements can assist in the understanding of the relevance of science from the learners’ perspectives.

This paper explores how university physics students constitute the practice of physics as enacted in student laboratories. In the study thirteen students enrolled in an undergraduate degree programme in physics were interviewed about their experiences of laboratory work. Working from a conceptualisation of learning that draws on situated learning theory, the paper describes the analytical process leading to the construction of two ‘Discourse models’ of physics students as a way of capturing the students’ descriptions of laboratory work. The empirical result is the characterisation of these two Discourse models; a ‘practical physics students’, someone focused on the execution of the experiment, and an ‘analytical physics student’, someone focused on the physics reasoning. The Discourse models are also discussed from a gender perspective.

This paper reports data from a case study of role-play debates on the controversial issue of wolves in Norway. The participants are 23 students at the age of 14-15 and their teacher. Transcripts from therole-play debates are the data sources. The focus of the paper is the teacher role regarding managementand teacher interventions in activities involving argumentation. A typology of teacher interventions and reasons for these is developed, that might serve as a useful tool for student teachers andteachers not experienced in managing debates and discussions.

This article reports from a computer-based assessment of scientific literacy. The study was implemented in Norway in the period from March to June 2005 by the use of 6 carry-in laptops. In total, 315 15-year old students participated. All students did a one hour paper-based test and a one-hour computerbased test. In addition to the cognitive response data, also behavioural data were recorded from the computer-based test. The results show no statistically significant gender difference for the paper-based test, while a substantial gender difference in favour of boys is established for the computer-based test. The PC test seems to favour boys because of the lower reading load. Boys also express higher motivation and larger preference for doing the test on PC compared to on paper. The behavioural data show that boys make more active use of the multimedia elements in the PC test than the girls do.

This paper deals with the process of acquiring a subject-specific language. When confronted with the visual representations and scientific terms of molecular life science, students try to make meaning using the language they have access to and their prior experience. In this process students use a kind of intermediate language, with frequent use of metaphors. Some metaphors can be traced back to the teaching they have experienced, while some are spontaneous metaphors created by the students. They also make use of words that seemingly have no meaning, here referred to as helpwords. The results from this study indicate that spontaneous metaphors and helpwords are important in learning situations, especially in an abstract discipline such as molecular life science. This paper aims to give a preliminary theoretical description of the phenomenon of helpwords, based on an interview study of 20 students taking natural science courses in their upper secondary school education.