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In what follows, Galen’s tract The Best Doctor is also a Philosopher is presented, together with a Dutch translation. The text and translation are preceded by an introduction, which briefly discusses the historical context and Galen’s aims and methods. Particular attention is paid to Galen’s relation to his role model Hippocrates, his ideas on the correct methods for medicine, and the moral requirements satisfied by the good physician.

The origin of the Dutch dairy breeds and its significance for their conservation as living heritage The three dairy breeds that dominated Dutch dairying in the twentieth century – Black and White, Red and White, and Groningen Whitehead – were first described by agriculturalist Iman van den Bosch on the basis of a quantitative analysis of their bodily dimensions. However, Van den Bosch did not analyse his data statistically, and a reanalysis with modern statistical tools shows that the data do not warrant a division into three distinct breeds. Historically, this is just a side note, yet it is important in light of recent conservation efforts. After the ‘Holsteinisation’ of the Dutch dairy herd in the 1970s, the three breeds declined and were ultimately listed as rare breeds. Currently they are taken to be authentic relics of centuries-old Dutch animal husbandry practices. We show, however, that the three breeds were a product of Van den Bosch and his successors’ efforts to modernize Dutch dairying. Before 1900 breed purity had never been an issue, and crossing of various types had been common practice. We discuss the implications of these findings for modern conservation practices and conclude that breed purity should not be sacrosanct.

Summary This article investigates the internal structure of ἔρως, as it is conceptualized in Plato’s Symposium. The analysis first focuses on the three constitutive elements of love on the lover’s side: a lack, a consciousness of it, and the perceived worth of what is lacking. It explores these in relation to the rest of the Symposium and to the Socratic elenchus. The second part of the analysis turns to the beloved’s end of the relation. By means of a comparative reading with the Lysis it explores possible ways of understanding the idea that something is loved for the sake of something else. On the reading offered here, the lover’s love of beauty is always for the sake of immortality, even if this beauty be the Form itself. Finally, considerations about narrative framing and the characterization of Diotima should prompt us to see some distance between this conception and Plato himself. The Symposium’s primary aim is not doctrinal but protreptic.

In times of corona the pressure at work among healthcare professionals increases, citizens experience more stress and the number of incidents of domestic violence rises. With past events in mind (SARS) a big increase of PTSD cases is to be expected within the next few years because of these consequences. PTSD causes depression, memory problems, mental and physical complaints, substance abuse and eventually possibly incapacity for work or suicidality. Existing treatments in The Netherlands help against symptoms, but the long term benefi ts are limited. Preliminary research results show that the combination of psychotherapy and MDMA can achieve signifi cantly better therapeutic results. In a controlled clinical setting the benefi t/risk ratio seems to be favorable. More research is needed to confirm these findings.

ACHTERGROND Lsd en andere hallucinogenen of psychedelica waren vanaf de Tweede Wereldoorlog tot in de jaren tachtig in gebruik als therapeutische middelen in de psychiatrie. De afgelopen jaren is er in de medische wetenschappen een toenemende interesse voor hernieuwd therapeutisch gebruik en onderzoek naar de effecten van deze middelen. DOEL Het plaatsen van het huidige wetenschappelijke onderzoek van lsd in de context van eerder onderzoek. METHODE Een systematische literatuurstudie naar het psychiatrisch gebruik van lsd en de maatschappelijke reacties daarop. RESULTATEN Vanaf 1947 is lsd onder meer toegepast in de behandeling van angsten en depressies, verslaving, en posttraumatische stoornissen. Vanaf begin jaren zestig kwam er kritiek op het gebruik, deels vanwege zorgen over het oproepen van psychosen, en deels vanwege de opkomst van niet-medisch gebruik. Er is echter nog geen duidelijk wetenschappelijk bewijs geleverd voor hetzij de voordelen, hetzij de nadelen van lsd-therapie. CONCLUSIE Het valt nog niet te voorspellen of lsd en andere psychedelica een comeback zullen gaan maken in de psychiatrie. In het huidige onderzoek probeert men elke maatschappelijke controverse te vermijden en een nieuwe evidence-base op te bouwen. Daarbij staat dit onderzoek wel in een directe continuïteit met eerder lsd-onderzoek. BACKGROUND: lsd and other hallucinogens or psychedelics have been therapeutically used in psychiatry in the period between the Second World War and the late 1980s. In the past years renewed interest in the medical sciences for research and therapeutic use of these substances has evolved. AIM: A discussion of contemporary lsd research in the context of earlier research. METHOD: A systematic survey of the literature on the psychiatric use of lsd and the reactions towards lsd use in society. RESULTS: Since 1947 lsd has been therapeutically used in the treatment of anxiety, depression, addiction, post traumatic disorders, and other conditions. Since the early 1960s this use has been criticized because of the danger of evoking psychoses in patients, and because of the rise of a widespread non-medical use. However, there is no consolidated evidence-base for either the positive or the negative outcomes of lsd therapy. CONCLUSION: At this moment it is unpredictable whether lsd will make a comeback in psychiatry. Contemporary research attempts to evade all public controversy and to build up a solid evidence-base. Nevertheless it demonstrates a direct continuity with earlier research.

De preventie van criminaliteit staat hoog op de maatschappelijke en politieke agenda. Naast een juridisch speelt hierbij ook een psychiatrisch kader een belangrijke rol. De laatste jaren gaat veel aandacht uit naar de neurofysiologie, neurobiologie en genetica. Sommigen hopen dat op inzichten uit deze vakgebieden gebaseerde detectie-, interven‐ tie- en beoordelingspraktijken beter en effectiever zouden zijn. Het is echter nodig om tijdig te reflecteren op de mogelijkheden en beperkingen van een dergelijke aanpak en ook op de ethische en maatschappelijke implicaties ervan. Dit artikel bespreekt implica‐ ties van achtereenvolgens de vroege detectie van risicokinderen en preventie van anti‐ sociaal gedrag en beoordelingsprocedures pro Justitia van verdachten van een ernstig vergrijp. Inleiding

De ervaringen van gebruikers van cannabisvoor medicinale doeleinden zoudeneen rol moeten spelen bij het positionerenvan mediwiet in het therapeutischarsenaal. Omdat de patiënt er meer vanweet dan de arts en omdat het een vormvan persoonsgerichte zorg is.

Soon after the end of the Second World War, Dutch science was reconstituted by novel funding agencies with well-filled coffers. In this book, the two largest and most influential institutions in physical research are the main focus of attention. The first one, the Foundation for Fundamental Research of Matter (FOM), which was to coordinate nuclear research, was founded in 1946. As in many other countries, a serious effort in fundamental physics was deemed necessary as a precondition for technological development. In the same year, and with almost the same enthusiastic support from political circles, the second institution, the National Defense Organisation (RVO) was established. Its task was to set up a serious program for defence research in the Netherlands. As in the field of fundamental physics, the Dutch wanted very much to remain within the purview of the new hegemon in defense research, the United States. Most leading Dutch physicists were involved in these new organizations. What were the goals they aimed for? Did the context of the early Cold War play an important role in their motivations and scientific accomplishments? In the current historiography about Dutch post-war science three themes can be identified. The first is stressing the ideological continuity with the 1930s: the new institutions were created on the basis of technocratic ideals dating back to the interwar years. Secondly, in most existing historiography Dutch post-war science is presented as idealistic, internationalist and anti-militaristic. This is, to a certain degree, in line with the perceived continuity with the interwar years. And it aligns perfectly with the critical attitude that prevailed among many scientists in relation to the military applications of nuclear science right after the summer of 1945. Finally, Dutch nuclear science is supposed to have been developed in the first post-war decade in an almost autonomous manner. This 'Alleingang', as it has been called, was mainly due to the secrecy that characterized the American and British scientific programs. In this book a new perspective on post-war Dutch physics is developed, in which these three historiographical tenets are challenged. Both FOM and RVO were created with the desire to recover lost ground in physical sciences. Particularly the sciences in the United Kingdom and in the United States seemed to have made great strides forward during the Second World War - which was called the physicists’ war for a reason. The leading Dutch scientists knew that the highly desired partnerships could only be established with new, substantial investments at home. FOM rapidly took steps towards the building of a working cyclotron and a nuclear pile. It effectively mobilized the available human and material resources and, in its capacity as a funding agency, took a coordinating role. In 1949, for a very short time, the Dutch scientists had the most powerful cyclotron in Western Europe. And the joined nuclear effort with Norway resulted in a nuclear reactor reaching criticality in 1951, just behind the big players the United States, Canada, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and France. The more autonomous program led by the physicist Kistemaker on isotope separation was quite successful as well. It may even have been one of the key reasons for the US to change their strategy of nuclear proliferation in 1953, as worked out in the 'Atoms for Peace' program. Dutch defense research, whose initial outlines were already developed by Dutch scientists in wartime London, was strengthened after 1945 and kept searching for attractive collaborative partnerships, particularly, again, with the United Kingdom and the United States. In the laboratories coordinated by the RVO a wide variety of research subjects was initiated. Apart from typical defense research projects such as fire-control systems and detection of and protection against chemical nerve agents, the RVO investments encompassed new fields such as operational research and fundamental medical-biological research. Applied technologies were developed, such as the radar image technology project called Teleplot, which persuaded the United States to fund an entirely new research facility specialized in air defense in the Netherlands. Besides launching new research programs, both FOM and RVO started a rather intense collaboration with the industrial giant Philips. Contacts with various intelligence services were established by Dutch physicists, up to the point where one of them founded an intel-organization dedicated solely to supplying Dutch science and industry with information about foreign R&D. So how does the current image of Dutch post-war physics as based on pre-war ideas, and as mainly pacifistic and relatively autonomous – hold up to these findings? The idea of continuity is of little help in understanding the post-war reorganization of the Dutch sciences. FOM’s history clearly challenges accounts that emphasize pre-war technocratic ideals. Regarding the image of a non-militaristic science, things are slightly more complicated. Obviously, many Dutch physicists wanted science to be a transparent and peaceful endeavor. Their pleas for open, non-military research received much attention, both in the public sphere and, later, from historians. However, the large scale of Dutch defense research, in which secrecy permeated most programs, is evidently at odds with this image. The entanglement between the RVO and academic and industrial circles, challenges this view even more. RVO chairman Sizoo, who was deeply involved in FOM’s early history as a prominent nuclear scientist, embodies the overlap between RVO and other realms of Dutch science – and he was by no means the only one. The third issue, the idea that Dutch (nuclear) science took a relatively autonomous path after 1945, is perhaps the most important one. Both RVO and FOM used their position in between the universities, industrial companies with large R&D capacities such as Philips and the Dutch state with its diplomatic power, to the full benefit of the successful execution of their tasks. By the end of the 1940s, the investments of FOM and RVO facilitated the Dutch entry into the US-led arsenal of knowledge. In doing so, the expanding Dutch physics not only contributed to the co-construction of US hegemony in Europe, as John Krige has shown in his study American Hegemony, but it also proved that actively anticipating on a future exchange of scientific information paid out very well. By the mid-1950s, the Dutch had achieved some impressive results in diverse fields such as digital fire-control, isotope separation and fundamental biological research. Due to American assistance, the early setup of a Dutch nuclear industry was well on its way. In fact, thanks to FOM, the Dutch were ahead of most other small European countries in this area. The establishment of the large laboratory SHAPE TC, fully paid by the United States, can be seen as a reward for the efforts the RVO had undertaken. Clearly, the desire to establish strong Western partnerships in knowledge production was particularly essential to the expansion of Dutch physical science after the watershed moment in 1945. Geopolitical motivations were strongly represented in the Cold War development and growth of the Dutch research infrastructure. Eventually, the scientific and technological knowledge created at RVO and FOM proved to be instrumental in securing actual collaboration and exchanges with the UK and the US in the 1950s. So the growth in scale and the internationalization of Dutch physics, as well as the motives behind the setting up of the particular research programs, become more understandable by looking at the way scientists anticipated on the exchange of knowledge and equipment with possible partners.

This paper is an introduction to the Studium issue De Hogere Burger School: onderwijs en emancipatie (the Higher Burger School: education and emancipation). Besides introducing the papers of this section, we provide a historiographic outline of this form of education, which was founded in 1863 and played an important role in the emancipation of the Dutch middle classes. The Higher Burger School is also reknowned for its role in the rise of the Dutch natural sciences. In the course of the twentieth century this school gradually became regarded as outdated. IIn 1968 it was replaced by new forms of secondary education.

De Nederlandse varkensfokkerij heeft gedurende de twintigste eeuw een grote metamorfose ondergaan. Van een bijzaak op de meeste boerderijen die maar weinig mensen serieus namen tot een van de belangrijkste takken van de Nederlandse veeteelt. Tegelijkertijd is wetenschap een steeds grotere rol gaan spelen in de praktijk van het varkensfokken. Een varkensfokker kan tegenwoordig niet zonder kunstmatige inseminatie, computer en ultrasone spekdiktemeting, en zijn fokschema's zijn in overeenstemming met de wetten van de genetica. Dit proefschrift onderzoekt vijf van de meest ingrijpende innovaties in de Nederlandse varkensfokkerij om erachter te komen hoe deze metamorfose tot stand is gekomen. Al snel blijkt dat de verwetenschappelijking niet een lineaire ontwikkeling is geweest, waarbij de kunst van het fokken langzamerhand is vervangen door de rationaliteit van de wetenschap. De grotere rol van wetenschap in de varkensfokkerij was vanzelfsprekende ontwikkeling. Ze is eveneens niet opgelegd aan de boeren door wetenschappers en beleidsmakers. Het blijkt dat boeren, wetenschappers, beleidsmakers en vrijwel alle andere betrokken beroepsgroepen een gemeenschappelijke noodzaak voelden tot continue modernisering van de praktijk, met daarbij een centrale rol voor wetenschap en technologie.

In dit artikel beschrijf ik de geschiedenis van de ‘body mass index’ (BMI). Op deze manier laat ik zien dat geneeskundige standaarden niet alleen bepaald worden door medischinhoudelijke argumenten, maar ook door sociale en praktische over wegingen, zoals de beschikbaarheid van meetinstrumenten.

Artikel over het ontstaan van de bijzondere collectie volkskunst van Anton van Os. Deze Haarlemse drogist stond eigenhandig garant voor het behoud van bijna de helft van de bewaard gebleven, antieke gapers. De exemplaren die hij uit heel Nederland bij elkaar bracht zijn inmiddels grotendeels ondergebracht in het Zuiderzeemuseum. Het merendeel van alle bewaard gebleven antieke gapers is te zien in het virtueel museum van Stichting Farmaceutisch Erfgoed (www.degapergalerij.nl).

Astronomie ging eeuwenlang vooral over planeten; pas in de negentiende eeuw gingen astronomen zich serieus met sterren bezighouden. Dat leidde tot een grondige verandering van het heelalbeeld, die tussen de Copernicaanse Revolutie en de Oerknaltheorie vaak over het hoofd wordt gezien.

The Mining Department (Het Mijnwezen) in the Netherlands-East-Indies was set up in 1850. Its task was to assist the operations in the Tin Mines in Bangka and to find other mineable deposits of useful minerals. The primary purpose was to earn quickly lots of money for the Netherlands, which were very much impoverished and in heavy debts after the Napoleontic occupation. Starting with four mining engineers, all from the Dutch Technical School, this number would grow, to a maximum of 70 engineers and 10 geologists in 1929. The Pacific War (1942-1945) made an end to the Dutch colonial presence. Initially all mining activities were reserved by the Mijnwezen. But gradually private investors were admitted. Mijnwezen had a supervisory role and was involved in selecting the winners of the various acquisition rounds. The oil finding and producing was the near-monopoly of the Royal Dutch Shell, a 60/40 joint company with Dutch and English roots, operating under the name Bataafse Petroleum Maatschappij (BPM). The production of a geological map of the entire colony progressed slowly owing to the dense afforestation and the heavy monsoon rainfall. There were only few Dutch geologists available and there was reluctance to hire foreigners. A bright exception was R. Verbeek, who was both engineer and geologist and had studied in Germany. His work was outstanding, but even so, the geological map of Indonesia was far from complete when the Pacific War started. The search for mineral deposits was largely unsuccesful, basically because Indie was not blessed that way. The noteworthy exceptions were the discovery, in 1862, of a a large coal deposit, called Ombilin, in the mountains of Western Sumatra and, on the island Billiton, a large tin occurrence was found to be exploited by private investors. Oil exploration, all by private firms, resulted in a large number of relative small oil producing fields on Sumatra and Java. By far the most significant geology-and-mining contribution of the colonial period, which ended in December 1950, were the exceptionally large oil fields in Sumatra, all found before the Pacific War by American companies (especially Caltex). These were exploited much to the advantage of the newly born Republic Indonesia. All together, the story of Het Mijnwezen is not one of succes, but rather one of perseverence. Its greatest financial contribution to the Netherlands had been the revenues from the Bangka Tin Mines, which were an inheritance from pre-colonial efforts. The most complete summary of the Mijnwezen and its geological and mining efforts and result is summarised by R.W. Van Bemmelen (1949) in 732 pages and 267 pages in Vol. II pages Economic Geology.

In the early 1970s Dutch universities were reformed, while scientific research was faced with new social and political demands. A decade later science and university policy changed again, with increasing roles for market pressure and competition. These developments might seem opposed, but in this paper David Baneke will argue that in fact there was great continuity, both concerning the backgrounds of the policy and the practical consequences. Their goal was to cope with the rapid increase in scale and the costs of science, to open up closed elitist networks, and to counter inefficiency and arbitrary spending. The pressure to reform came both from policy makers and from within the universities themselves. In all cases the changes resulted in professional management structures and an increase in bureaucracy. In this paper, Baneke will analyse these developments from the perspective of the internationally prominent Dutch astronomical community, which experienced a serious crisis in 1970 in which every part of the disciplinary infrastructure was reconsidered.

achtergrond: Ontwikkelingen in de neurowetenschappen en genetica zijn relevant voor de forensische psychiatrie. doel: Een indicatie geven of en hoe toepassingen van genetische en neurowetenschappelijke inzichten reeds ingang hebben gevonden in de forensische rapportage pro Justitia en verkennen in hoeverre nieuwe toepassingen daarbij kunnen aansluiten. methode: Analyse van 60 rapportages pro Justitia uit het Pieter Baan Centrum en 30 ambulante rapportages uit 2000 en 2009. resultaten: Toepassingen vanuit de (gedrags)genetica, neurologie en neuropsychologie werden binnen de forensische rapportagepraktijk nog relatief beperkt gebruikt en bevonden zich in verschillende stadia. Neuropsychologisch onderzoek had al een positie gekregen, maar kon nog beter geïntegreerd worden. De toepassingen vanuit de neurologie waren nog in ontwikkeling. Klinisch genetisch onderzoek werd incidenteel ingezet om een syndroom met gevolgen voor het gedrag te diagnosticeren. conclusie: Wanneer in de toekomst gevalideerde kennis zal toenemen, is verdere integratie van nieuwe onderzoeksmethoden in de bestaande praktijk mogelijk.

On the basis of an analysis of academic satires from three centuries and of the conventions of this genre, this article argues that academic satire usually reflect conflicts in opinions about what good, normal science ought to be. Such ideals were influenced by changing ecclesiastical, confessional and social contexts. Apart from some examples of plays about students, of the role of pamphlets in general, and some novels from the period of German Idealism, it draws on three case studies: Johannes Reuchlin's Epistolae obscurorum virorum (1515), the Conspicilia Batavica (1609) and the Aristophanis Senatus Consultum (1761).

On the basis of an analysis of the way in which a team of translators created the Dutch Authorized Version of 1637; this article shows that the translators and revisers not always succeeded in making humanist philology subservient to orthodox Calvinist thought. The article draws extensively on an ignored source: the unique Autographon, an interleafed type-set copy of the first draft of the translation, which contains thousands of manuscript annotations and corrections by the members of the four teams who worked on the translation for over a decade.

Alexander Numan and the improvement of the Dutch sheep breeds Alexander Numan’s life and work provide a splendid illustration of the early nineteenth-century Dutch scientist’s view of the role of science and scientists in society. As a professor at the Utrecht veterinary school he spent a substantial part of his time on a practical endeavour: the improvement of the wool quality of the Dutch sheep breeds. He did not confine his activities to the scientific aspects only, but aimed to obtain the active involvement of all relevant stakeholders in his project: the government, the sheep farmers and the wool industry. In the literature, Numan’s project is seen as a failure: the stakeholders were skeptical about his project from the beginning, as wool improvement was seen as a misguided aim. The Dutch wool industry was perfectly satisfied with the quality of the Dutch wool, and the trend among sheep breeders was to improve their sheeps’ meat meat quality rather than their wool. Eventually, the government withdrew its indispensable support. Nevertheless, Numan clung doggedly to the aim he had set himself, and the question we want to answer is this paper is why. We argue that the answer is to be found in Numan’s view of the role of science in society. His motives were not merely economic, but, first and foremost, of a moral nature. Wool quality, for him, was a measure of the level of civilization a country had reached. Social and cultural progress went hand in hand with the availability of higher quality clothing, the raw materials for which the Dutch sheep were as yet unable to provide. By providing these materials Numan was convinced to contribute directly to the well-being and cultural enhancement of the Dutch population, an objective that was characteristic of the self-fashioned private and public persona of the early nineteenth-century Dutch scientist.

review of: Huib J. Zuidervaart and Rob H. van Gent, Between rhetoric and reality: Astronomical practices at the observatory of the Amsterdam Society 'Felix Meritis', 1786-1889 (Hilversum 2013), Studium (2015) 55-56.

Medisch erfgoed is niet altijd even toegankelijk, maar aan het Amsterdamse Museum Vrolik zal dat niet liggen. In de afgelopen jaren gaf het museum een publieksboek uit met prachtige foto’s van de collectie; schreef conservator Laurens de Rooy een boek over de Amsterdamse anatoom Lodewijk Bolk (1866–1930); werkte het museum mee aan verschillende wisseltentoonstellingen bij andere instellingen; en vernieuwde het museum zijn vaste opstelling. De nieuwe opstelling, te bekijken sinds september 2012, toont de collectie anatomische preparaten vanuit twee invalshoeken: een medische en een historische. Deze combinatie is niet ongebruikelijk in anatomische musea. Deze musea bevinden zich vaak in een medische omgeving – Museum Vrolik zit in het AMC – en hun preparatencollecties laten de binnenkant van ons lichaam zien. Tegelijkertijd bevatten die collecties vaak veel historische preparaten – in het Vrolik is ongeveer de helft van de collectie ouder dan honderd jaar – die ons iets kunnen vertellen over wetenschaps- en verzamelgeschiedenis. Het nieuwe Vrolik vertelt het historische verhaal in de 7 grote kasten langs de wanden en draagt medische kennis over in de 24 kleinere vitrines in het midden van de zaal.

The learned letter is attracting ever more attention as a source for the pursuit of the history of knowledge, partly because correspondences are rapidly being digitized. The letter straddles the divide between a conversation and a publication. Letters could have a confidential character, but writers could also expect letters to circulate amongst associates. Harold Love’s notion of ‘scribal publication’, with which he describes the circulation of newsletters, appears to be also applicable, to a certain extent, to the communicational situation of the personal ‘familiar’ letter. In this paper, the heretical ideas of the French exegete Isaac de La Peyrère serve as a case to go beyond Love in developing the notion of ‘scribal publication’. We connect it to the ‘culture of discussion’ which was characteristic of the Dutch Republic around 1650 (Willem Frijhoff and Marijke Spies) and to the idea of civil conversation as a tolerant setting for discussion (Steven Shapin).

This chapter explores codes of confidentiality in making public the contents of other scholars' letters in the seventeenth century, either when they were still alive or posthumously.

W.N.A.Klever’s claim that he has discovered new Spinoza texts is unfounded in every respect. The seventeenth-century manuscript annotations in a copy of Spinoza’s Opera posthuma, kept in Leiden University Library (shelf mark 755 F 32), do not originate in the circle of Spinoza's friends, nor do they contain any material that derives from the philosopher himself. They are an intelligent reader’s comments, and as such they constitute an important document of the immediate reception of Spinoza’s philosophy. So far, the author has not been identified. It was certainly not Spinoza’s correspondent E.W. von Tschirnhaus. and Klever’s attempt to attribute the annotations to Tschirnhaus is a dismal failure: the four arguments adduced to substantiate this claim are altogether spurious.

Historisch essay voor het 250-jarig bestaan van het Provinciaal Utrechts Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen

In the early 1970s Dutch universities were reformed, while scientific research was faced with new social and political demands. A decade later science and university policy changed again, with increasing roles for market pressure and competition. These developments might seem opposed, but in this paper David Baneke will argue that in fact there was great continuity, both concerning the backgrounds of the policy and the practical consequences. Their goal was to cope with the rapid increase in scale and the costs of science, to open up closed elitist networks, and to counter inefficiency and arbitrary spending. The pressure to reform came both from policy makers and from within the universities themselves. In all cases the changes resulted in professional management structures and an increase in bureaucracy. In this paper, Baneke will analyse these developments from the perspective of the internationally prominent Dutch astronomical community, which experienced a serious crisis in 1970 in which every part of the disciplinary infrastructure was reconsidered.

In times of corona the pressure at work among healthcare professionals increases, citizens experience more stress and the number of incidents of domestic violence rises. With past events in mind (SARS) a big increase of PTSD cases is to be expected within the next few years because of these consequences. PTSD causes depression, memory problems, mental and physical complaints, substance abuse and eventually possibly incapacity for work or suicidality. Existing treatments in The Netherlands help against symptoms, but the long term benefi ts are limited. Preliminary research results show that the combination of psychotherapy and MDMA can achieve signifi cantly better therapeutic results. In a controlled clinical setting the benefi t/risk ratio seems to be favorable. More research is needed to confirm these findings.

ACHTERGROND Lsd en andere hallucinogenen of psychedelica waren vanaf de Tweede Wereldoorlog tot in de jaren tachtig in gebruik als therapeutische middelen in de psychiatrie. De afgelopen jaren is er in de medische wetenschappen een toenemende interesse voor hernieuwd therapeutisch gebruik en onderzoek naar de effecten van deze middelen. DOEL Het plaatsen van het huidige wetenschappelijke onderzoek van lsd in de context van eerder onderzoek. METHODE Een systematische literatuurstudie naar het psychiatrisch gebruik van lsd en de maatschappelijke reacties daarop. RESULTATEN Vanaf 1947 is lsd onder meer toegepast in de behandeling van angsten en depressies, verslaving, en posttraumatische stoornissen. Vanaf begin jaren zestig kwam er kritiek op het gebruik, deels vanwege zorgen over het oproepen van psychosen, en deels vanwege de opkomst van niet-medisch gebruik. Er is echter nog geen duidelijk wetenschappelijk bewijs geleverd voor hetzij de voordelen, hetzij de nadelen van lsd-therapie. CONCLUSIE Het valt nog niet te voorspellen of lsd en andere psychedelica een comeback zullen gaan maken in de psychiatrie. In het huidige onderzoek probeert men elke maatschappelijke controverse te vermijden en een nieuwe evidence-base op te bouwen. Daarbij staat dit onderzoek wel in een directe continuïteit met eerder lsd-onderzoek. BACKGROUND: lsd and other hallucinogens or psychedelics have been therapeutically used in psychiatry in the period between the Second World War and the late 1980s. In the past years renewed interest in the medical sciences for research and therapeutic use of these substances has evolved. AIM: A discussion of contemporary lsd research in the context of earlier research. METHOD: A systematic survey of the literature on the psychiatric use of lsd and the reactions towards lsd use in society. RESULTS: Since 1947 lsd has been therapeutically used in the treatment of anxiety, depression, addiction, post traumatic disorders, and other conditions. Since the early 1960s this use has been criticized because of the danger of evoking psychoses in patients, and because of the rise of a widespread non-medical use. However, there is no consolidated evidence-base for either the positive or the negative outcomes of lsd therapy. CONCLUSION: At this moment it is unpredictable whether lsd will make a comeback in psychiatry. Contemporary research attempts to evade all public controversy and to build up a solid evidence-base. Nevertheless it demonstrates a direct continuity with earlier research.

De ervaringen van gebruikers van cannabisvoor medicinale doeleinden zoudeneen rol moeten spelen bij het positionerenvan mediwiet in het therapeutischarsenaal. Omdat de patiënt er meer vanweet dan de arts en omdat het een vormvan persoonsgerichte zorg is.

This paper is an introduction to the Studium issue De Hogere Burger School: onderwijs en emancipatie (the Higher Burger School: education and emancipation). Besides introducing the papers of this section, we provide a historiographic outline of this form of education, which was founded in 1863 and played an important role in the emancipation of the Dutch middle classes. The Higher Burger School is also reknowned for its role in the rise of the Dutch natural sciences. In the course of the twentieth century this school gradually became regarded as outdated. IIn 1968 it was replaced by new forms of secondary education.

De Nederlandse varkensfokkerij heeft gedurende de twintigste eeuw een grote metamorfose ondergaan. Van een bijzaak op de meeste boerderijen die maar weinig mensen serieus namen tot een van de belangrijkste takken van de Nederlandse veeteelt. Tegelijkertijd is wetenschap een steeds grotere rol gaan spelen in de praktijk van het varkensfokken. Een varkensfokker kan tegenwoordig niet zonder kunstmatige inseminatie, computer en ultrasone spekdiktemeting, en zijn fokschema's zijn in overeenstemming met de wetten van de genetica. Dit proefschrift onderzoekt vijf van de meest ingrijpende innovaties in de Nederlandse varkensfokkerij om erachter te komen hoe deze metamorfose tot stand is gekomen. Al snel blijkt dat de verwetenschappelijking niet een lineaire ontwikkeling is geweest, waarbij de kunst van het fokken langzamerhand is vervangen door de rationaliteit van de wetenschap. De grotere rol van wetenschap in de varkensfokkerij was vanzelfsprekende ontwikkeling. Ze is eveneens niet opgelegd aan de boeren door wetenschappers en beleidsmakers. Het blijkt dat boeren, wetenschappers, beleidsmakers en vrijwel alle andere betrokken beroepsgroepen een gemeenschappelijke noodzaak voelden tot continue modernisering van de praktijk, met daarbij een centrale rol voor wetenschap en technologie.

Astronomie ging eeuwenlang vooral over planeten; pas in de negentiende eeuw gingen astronomen zich serieus met sterren bezighouden. Dat leidde tot een grondige verandering van het heelalbeeld, die tussen de Copernicaanse Revolutie en de Oerknaltheorie vaak over het hoofd wordt gezien.

This paper analyses the development of chicken breeding for eggs in the Netherlands in the twentieth century. The Dutch poultry sector was of only marginal significance early in the century, yet after the Second World War it developed into the most industrialised segment of animal husbandry. The introduction of scientific breeding methods played a central role in this, as well as the increasing dominance of specialised commercial breeding companies. While scientists and agricultural engineers developed several innovative approaches to breeding that helped increase egg production significantly, we argue that the methods on which these approaches were based – inbreeding, hybridising, selection and progeny testing – had been used by animal breeders since the eighteenth century. Scientists succeeded in increasing the efficiency of these methods by introducing the quantitative and statistical instruments of quantitative genetics; the new Mendelian theory was of little practical use in this respect. Hybrid breeding methods were also shaped by the commercial interests of breeding companies. In the Netherlands the rise of the poultry industry was slowed down for several decades by the government’s policy to protect the interest of smallholders, yet after the establishment of the EEC this protectionism was dispensed with. As an example of the role of commercial companies we discuss the early history of Hendrix Genetics, a Dutch-based breeding company that is now one of the two multinational enterprises that dominate the breeding market for egg-laying chicken worldwide.