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It has been shown that clustering helps local enterprises in industrial districts overcome growth constraints and compete in distant markets in advanced and less developed countries. Nevertheless, recent contributions have stressed that more attention needs to be paid to external linkages and to the role played by global buyers to foster upgrading at cluster levels. In this study, we contribute to this debate focusing on the analysis of the relationships existing between clustering, global value chains, upgrading, and sectoral patterns of innovation in Latin America. We find that sectoral specificities matter and influence the mode and the extent of upgrading in clusters integrated in global value chains. Key words--Latin America, small enterprise, industrial policy, clusters, global value chain, innovation

In this paper we present the results of empirical research carried out in two footwear clusters located in Italy, the 'land of industrial districts,' and two clusters of footwear enterprises in Mexico. The aim of the study is to present a comparison between the ideal-typical industrial district, as it is defined in the literature, and the case studies in Mexico and Italy. Material from a survey of clusters of firms in Italy and Mexico reveals how clusters in both countries differ in some aspects from the 'textbook' model. Similarities and differences are investigated in some detail, and attention is given to the intensity and quality of backward and forward linkages, the existence of an 'industrial atmosphere' and the nature and extent of institutional support.

Presents a comparison between the ideal-typical industrial district as defined in the literature, footwear clusters in Italy and in Mexico. Description of the model; Italian footwear industry; Mexican footwear industry; Italian districts of Brenta and Marche; Mexican districts of Guadalajara and Leon.