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Many nations have implemented policies to improve drinking water quality, but challenges arise from overexploited or contaminated groundwater-based sources. This paper aims at examining the aspects of water scarcity, security, and sustainability within an Indian village context. We attempt to compare two rural water supply sources in Nagla Chandi village in Uttar Pradesh, India: (a) untreated groundwater sourced from bore wells and (b) treated water from a reverse osmosis (RO) plant. We observed that subterranean minerals are the primary pollutants of unprocessed water drawn from borewells, which form the main source of drinking water. Even though water from the RO plant meets all the quality parameters of potability, frequent breakdowns of the plant due to improper management force the villagers to drink untreated water from the dug wells fitted with hand pumps, affecting their health. We also found a high incidence of water-borne diseases. The case analysis suggests enhancing village water treatment projects by training local artisans in system repair and increasing Panchayat staff to include trained engineers for technical advice and maintenance. The paper proposes reducing water testing cost in rural areas to make it possible Q4 for local organizations to regularly assess water quality and implement corrective actions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the continued advancement of digital technology, the digital economy will gradually become the primary economic form in the future, having a profound impact on a variety of industries, including agriculture. Agriculture is a major source of global water use, and efficient water use in agriculture is critical to coping with water scarcity and ensuring food security. This study used publicly available data from 30 Chinese provinces from 2006 to 2017 to estimate the relationship between the digital economy and agricultural water use efficiency using the systematic generalized method of moments technique. According to the findings, a 1% increase in the digital economy indicator is associated with a 0.053% increase in agricultural water use efficiency. In addition, the digital economy improves agricultural water usage efficiency through three mediating channels: structural effect, scale effect, and spillover effect. For the digital economy and agricultural water use efficiency to develop in tandem, the Chinese government should strive to strengthen the development of the digital economy and work on the intermediate channels demonstrated in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the framework of shared socio-economic pathways, this study predicts future population and economic conditions of the Zhanghe River Basin and combines with the water quota to predict future water demand. First, the localization parameter system is constructed. Furthermore, the water demand is calculated. The results show that (1) under regional competitive pathway, the population is the largest, while under uneven pathway, the population is the smallest. The largest economic forecast is obtained under fossil fuel development pathway, while the smallest economic forecast is obtained under regional competitive pathway. (2) The results for domestic and economic water use in the basin show that the annual water demand shows an increasing trend. Fossil fuel development pathway is the scenario with the highest socio-economic water demand, while regional competitive pathway is the scenario with the least. (3) The Zhanghe River Basin faces a high risk of water resource shortage in the future. Even under the situation of minimum socio-economic water demand, the total water demand is difficult to meet fully. The forecasting framework established in this paper has high application value and can provide a reference for water demand forecasting and prospective water demand management in river basins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Potable water scarcity is a global issue. Recent and ongoing droughts in the Western United States make residential water conservation crucial. Several water agencies have invested in conservation programs that educate residents on non-traditional water sources, such as laundry-to-landscape (L2L) greywater systems, which reuse washing machine water for outdoor irrigation. This study analyzed landscape vegetation and 21 greywater characteristics of 30 households with L2L systems in Santa Clara County, California. Greywater from most residential systems, even ones decades-old and unmaintained, had acceptable reuse values for major water quality parameters tested. Overall, 89% of fecal coliform counts fell within the acceptable range for water reuse, although counts were higher in non-code-compliant systems than in code-compliant L2L systems. The mean values for coliform counts, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, total organic carbon, magnesium, sodium, chloride, and sodium adsorption ratio were lower than the means previously reported for L2L systems. Analysis of water samples indicated high levels of iron and calcium, which merits further investigation. Outdoor vegetation appeared diverse and healthy. The promising results here indicate a high potential for expanding L2L programs. Wider system adoption can diversify regional water supply in service areas where the residential sector accounts for significant water use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Algeria is currently experiencing a real water shortage and leaks in the distribution networks, which affect the water supply. To reduce losses, the authorities have adopted a rehabilitation policy that requires resources that are not necessarily available. In this context, the aim of this study is to develop a decision support methodology for managers to enable them to plan urgent rehabilitation and to evaluate the benefits generated. The methodology consists of two phases: the diagnostic phase to identify a set of criteria, taking into account national specificities, and the planning phase, including the choice of Fuzzy-AHP for weighting and PROMETHEE II for ranking. An application is carried out on the Fouka network in Bejaia city (Algeria), consisting of 204 pipes. The application enabled the 204 pipes to be ranked in order of urgency and the benefits generated to be assessed in terms of environmental, economic, social, and technical parameters. The recovered water is significant in the first 60% of rehabilitated pipes. Investment costs are recovered within 3 years of the network being fully rehabilitated. The average reduction in network age is 5 years for every 10% of pipes rehabilitated. Complaints will be 0 after 70% of the pipes are rehabilitated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although regional and seasonal water scarcity occurs frequently in China, and the contradiction among domestic, production and ecological water is prominent in some watersheds, the Chinese government still attaches great importance to the determination and implementation of ecological flow of rivers or lakes. Practitioners have been seeking methods to determine the ecological flow of rivers or lakes and how to ensure its implementation. Taking the Dingnan River watershed as a case, drawing on the experience of ‘Hedging rule’, the ‘Determination-Assessment-Reduction’ for the ecological flow nexus approach (the D-A-R approach) is introduced, which includes the determination of the annual ecological flow process through the river section, the assessment of water scarcity degree of the watershed and various water reduction strategies, respectively, and respond to the three scenarios of ‘general type, saving type and constrained type’ during the gap period. The results show that it is possible to use the D-A-R approach to proactively and dynamically adjust the ecological flow according to the probability estimate of that amount of water inflow per month, which the adjusted ecological flow threshold can better adapt to water scarcity at different levels and alleviate the contradiction among domestic, production and ecological water in the watershed during the dry period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water scarcity and security drive attention to water reuse in policy and business. However, water reuse may generate new water loops and challenge water governance with new and different types of water, risks, involved actors, and responsibilities. These challenges demand robust institutional arrangements related to water governance. This article assesses the institutional arrangements associated with four case studies in Spain, Italy, Croatia, and Israel. The findings reveal that the more diverse the water uses and users, the more challenges and risks, particularly those associated with institutional arrangements such as quality standards, sanctions, and conflict prevention, are likely to emerge. The weaknesses of governance models and regulations to deal with changes, uncertainties, and public resistance call for special attention to the design of the institutional arrangements before the adoption. Independent of the type of technology adopted, governance may be improved by ensuring internal and external water monitoring; integrating water management with spatial concerns; improving training, expert engagement, and civil society awareness; and reducing water reuse costs. In addition, alternative models that guarantee the efficiency of governance in attaining objectives and assuring the participation of new water users in the management of water reuse loops may also improve governance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study, while detailing the processes of securitisation and de-securitisation of a non-traditional security issue, deliberates on the water scarcity in Pakistan. It addresses the question that whether the problem of not giving importance to water scarcity lies with the 'intent' or 'capacity' of the actors - the elite. Or the securitisation is done by the actors 'only' to achieve their political objectives? This qualitative embedded case study deals with the rhetoric about the construction of the Diamer Basha Dam in order to address the water scarcity around the 2018 elections. The study finds that the securitisation of non-tradition security issues translates the elite's (securitising actors) political rhetoric (speech acts) into policy. The same elite desecuritises the issues after realising their political goals by removing the 'speech acts' from the equation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Israel has set ambitious goals in terms of the widespread adoption of desalination and water recycling technologies. Policymakers in Israel consider these technologies as the key to improve urban water security but knowledge of stakeholder views on this policy approach is not well established. We deployed the Q-methodology, a qualitative–quantitative approach, to empirically determine social perspectives on desalination and water recycling across a wide range of stakeholders in the Israeli water sector. We identified the following four distinctive social perspectives: (1) desalination should be the option of last resort; (2) desalination is moving us to an infinite resource; (3) equating savings to resources is a dangerous illusion; and (4) desalination is (risky) electric water. A common characteristic of these perspectives is the belief that desalination is necessary for a water-secure country, but desalination should not be the only source of drinking water in Israel. Our findings indicate that Israeli stakeholders show complex and contingent understandings of the pros and cons of desalination and water recycling and the risks involved in too much reliance on a limited number of water sources. We discuss the potential implications of our findings for water management and security in Israel and other places with water scarcity concerns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Northwest China frequently experiences significant droughts and water shortages. To better balance the supply and demand, and provide sufficient funds for water resource projects, this study applied a computable general equilibrium model to construct an agricultural water pricing policy model that depends on the crops' economic value and regional water use characteristics. Wuwei City in Gansu Province was used as a case study to test the model. Three agricultural water price increase policies and three supporting subsidy policies were developed. The study quantitatively investigated the impact of these policies on the agricultural economy, water use, and efficiency of water use from different water sources. The results indicated that water pricing reform promotes water conservation and improves water use efficiency. Subsidies can reduce the negative impact of water pricing policies on the agricultural economy. Economic crops (e.g. vegetables) are more sensitive to water prices compared to food crops (e.g. wheat). Finally, to the best of our knowledge, this study provided the best water pricing reform scenario expected to be the most effective for local development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Industrial wastewater recycling projects are mainly used for alleviation of both water scarcity and contamination of freshwater bodies. These projects mainly address major challenges related to technological and economic aspects rather than stakeholders' responsibility. Hence, little is known for the role of responsible stakeholders as a major part of planning policy, which requires recognition of their crucial role and integration into associated procedures. This paper presents a new decision support framework to identify responsible stakeholders and reveals the role of their motivations. The approach integrates qualitative and frequency analysis methods into a comprehensive framework to identify the problems over the project lifetime from visible to their roots and link them together with stakeholders through deep mapping. The planning policy framework is applied to a real-world case study of industrial parks in Iran. The results of the case study show that visible economic, social, and technological problems are caused by responsible stakeholders with no direct role in those projects. Additionally, deep mapping analysis shows various deep roots caused by the government and industry are linked to visible problems across all project phases that are related to the role of stakeholders, their behaviour, and deep beliefs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Helmand is the most important river in Afghanistan and an indispensable water resource for southeastern Iran. Recent water depletions in the river, however, have caused environmental issues in the region with further repercussions on long-term hydro political debates between the countries of Iran and Afghanistan. The primary reasons underlying depletions in the river’s water levels remain, however, unclear, and are the main objective of this study. Therefore, this study proposes a hydro-political analysis of the Helmand Basin by analyzing precipitation through Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) data, Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) land data for groundwater analysis, and Landsat 5 and 8 Images from 1991 to 2020 to classify vegetation and waterbodies using a Support Vector Machine classifier and identify the prime cause of downstream water depletions. Despite severe droughts, the preliminary findings indicated increases in rainfall, groundwater sources, water bodies, and vegetation in the river upstream, which conveys the inconsequential share of droughts to the overall water shortage as opposed to human interventions and water usage which have also shown to increase in the river upstream. Further findings suggest that the severe downstream water depletions are primarily on account of upstream water consumptions that have triggered environmental degradations and are a threat to human habitations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urbanization-led land use changes have significant effects on urban water problems as water scarcity is a common challenge for planning of cities today. Chunnakam aquifer in Jaffna, Sri Lanka has been significantly depleted and polluted in the past decade. This study assessed the impact of spatial distribution of land use on water quality and quantity using 44 dug wells. Water scarcity index (WSI), water quality index (WQI) and multiple linear regression (MLR) models were used to explore the spatiotemporal patterns of water quality, quantity and their relationship. Results revealed that 75% of the aquifer faced scarcity problems while 54% was polluted and not suitable for consumption. Moreover, water sources located around agricultural and residential land use were contaminated in line with the spatial distribution of crop types, fertilizer use and domestic waste disposal. Integration of water policy with urban development strategy and multi-stakeholder engagement for water conservation are important findings for ensuring the water security of cities in developing countries. This study can be further expanded by evaluating temporal effects of urbanization on water resources for sustainable spatial planning. Strong water policies must govern the land use change to ensure water security for arid regions in developing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The pressure on water resources that Algeria encounters is due to the scarcity and the water demand increase by different sectors of activity. This induces managers to reconsider the traditional supply management approach. The new water policies aim to adopt water demand management by improving the efficiency of its use in the agricultural sector, which consumes more than 59% of freshwater withdrawals. Economic, regulatory, and voluntary instruments have been adopted for better govern)ance of water resources. This study aims to (i) define institutional arrangements on the exploitation of surface water in large irrigation schemes in Algeria and (ii) assess the effectiveness of the current water management instruments. Findings from farmers’ and water distribution agencies’ surveys suggest that objectives expected by the application of the different economic instruments are far from being achieved. Moreover, the absence of effective executive agencies for the implementation of regu)lations suggests that an improvement in the performance of public administration is necessary to achieve better governance of irrigation water in Algeria. At the local level, and despite a lack of farmers’ will to formally engage in a collective of farmers, they organize themselves around informal arrangements to overcome the challenges associated with water scarcity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is an urgent need to address the challenges of inadequate safe water and proper sanitation in peri-urban communities in low-income countries. Agencies have tended to focus on a single aspect of the challenge for service delivery, which ultimately fails to capture the full scope of the problem. In this study, 63 household surveys and 15 key informant interviews regarding water and sanitation issues were conducted in a peri-urban area of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Results revealed that 87% of households experience water scarcity issues. More than 50% of the homes were surrounded by swampy areas with sewage and stagnant pools, with 40% reporting water source contamination due to seepage and overflowing of sewage collection systems. Key informants reported water scarcity and poor water quality due to poor sanitation practices and a compromised water supply network. We found that a highly integrated approach that invests in cultural, social, political, human, financial, and built community capitals is needed to address these challenges. Community self-efficacy and empowerment will be critical to accomplishing this and protecting public health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From late 2013 until the beginning of 2015, the metropolitan region of São Paulo, Brazil, experienced a severe water shortage. During that period, economic incentives were implemented by the regional water provider in a successful attempt to reduce water consumption. We aimed to investigate whether such incentives, as well as the experience of a scarcity period itself, had a persistent impact on consumer behaviour after the water crisis was over. This study was conducted by means of a hierarchical linear model with three levels (HLM3) to verify if the reduction effect remained in the midterm and a regression using panel data to understand which factors influenced water consumption behaviour change before, during, and after the local severe water drought. The results indicate that the average water consumption level subsequent to the rain scarcity period was significantly lower than before and that, in addition to the economic incentives, the severity of the scarcity event explained the behaviour change verified in water consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Willingness to reuse reclaimed municipal wastewater was ascertained through a questionnaire completed by 424 respondents, opinions of 17 experts, and interviews with 15 farmers. Information was collected to assess their knowledge of water scarcity and to determine the influence of demographics, correlation to perceived risk, willingness, challenges, and barriers related to the acceptance of reclaimed water. Most respondents were receptive to the idea of using it for purposes other than drinking, and ‘water conservative’ individuals were inclined towards using it even for drinking. Farmers were concerned about its quality and implications for the health of using it for irrigation. Effective communication between authorities and end-users can promote the idea of reusing greywater and reclaimed water for domestic use, and, eventually, for drinking. These findings will be useful in developing an integrated, practical, and strategic framework for treating wastewater for reuse in other cities not only in India but also in other developing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water shortage is a global risk that could arguably be mitigated using water more efficiently. However, the profound relationship between water use efficiency and regional economic size has not been empirically tested. The research design employed an exploratory empirical analysis done through non-linear curve function and attempted to analyze the evolution of water use efficiency over economic growth. First, the water use efficiency change was decomposed into pure technical efficiency change, scale efficiency change, and technological advance change. Second, the scale efficiency is generally less than 1, revealing that it is the main reason for the decreased water use efficiency by the empirical analysis of trends across China. Third, the fitting function between water use efficiency and economic development was constructed. The results supported the existence of an inverted-S shape between water use efficiency and regional economic growth. This analysis will be the reference to formulate scenarios for economic and demographic growth coupled with water use, particularly for planning and managing future water provision and demand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Yellow River Basin (YRB) is facing a serious water shortage. How to effectively alleviate the water crisis and achieve sustainable development in the YRB has become a widespread concern. By using the interregional input-output tables of China in 2002, 2007, 2012 and 2017, we analysed the transfer of virtual water and value-added and the inequality embodied in trade between the YRB and other regions. Results demonstrated that: (1) for the YRB, the pressure on water resources was alleviated through the net inflow of virtual water after 2007. However, the economic situation deteriorated due to the net outflow of value-added in interregional trade after 2012. (2) There existed a serious inequality in virtual water consumption and economic benefits embodied in trade between the YRB and Beijing, Shanghai, etc., with regional inequality (RI) index exceeding 1. Meanwhile, agriculture faced the most serious inequality among all sectors in the YRB. Accordingly, the YRB should aim to optimise its industrial structure and improve water use efficiency to achieve a win-win situation for both economic development and net virtual water inflow. In addition, policymakers should take measures to flexibly adjust the trade scale between the YRB and other regions based on the RI index. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydro-economic models (HEMs) are powerful tools to analyze water scarcity, drought, and water management problems. Though several HEMs reviews have been conducted in the recent past, none of them focused on the management of transboundary river water disputes, benefit sharing, or trade-offs. Therefore, this review explored how HEMs can suggest mitigating water sharing disputes on transboundary rivers. Though more than 300 HEMs have been developed worldwide, very few focused on transboundary river water disputes. After vigorous screening at Google Scholar, only 25 articles were found which focused on transboundary river water disputes. Most HEMs that were reviewed proposed to share benefits such as sharing hydropower produced from the river, reallocating water from low-value agriculture to high-value agriculture or managed operation of the dam, or other monetary compensation. But no study assessed non-water sector benefit sharing such as trade or transit. Most HEMs focused on irrigation and hydropower which are benefits from the river and very few studies focused on fisheries, environment, and wetland which are benefits to the river. International rivers can act as a catalyst among the riparian countries and promote cooperation in trade, commerce, exchange of technologies, and other fields. HEMs can play an important role in this regard. It is to be mentioned that HEMs cannot resolve water conflicts in a shared basin, they only can propose for the options of solution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current water shortage crisis has necessitated an increased focus on improving the irrigation efficiency in groundwater overdraft areas. Consequently, the Chinese government has supported small farmers in installing community-based watersaving technologies (WSTs) providing high irrigation efficiency. Based on the data collected from 620 households located in the groundwater overdraft area of Hebei, North China Plain, this study conducts a stochastic frontier analysis to measure farmers' irrigation water use efficiency (WUE) and analyzes the impact of land fragmentation and WST types on their WUE. The results show that the average WUE of groundwater irrigation is 0.606. The WUE between community-based and householdbased WSTs differs based on the degree of land fragmentation. A high degree of land fragmentation restricts communitybased WSTs from efficiently improving farmers' WUE, whereas household-based WSTs perform better and are easier to adopt. For high land fragmentation, the WUE of the community-based WST is 9.12% lower than that of the household-based WST. However, the WUE of the community-based WST is 12.55% higher than that of the household-based WST when the degree of land fragmentation is low. Therefore, the government should pay attention to small farmers' adaptability toward WST and promote community-based WSTs on a low degree of land fragmentation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Indus River System is a major source of life in Pakistan. A vast array of Pakistan's agricultural and domestic consumption needs are critically dependent on the Indus River System. The Indus River contributes towards 25% of the country's gross domestic product, providing water for almost 90% of the food production in Pakistan. Linked to the water security issues, Pakistan is potentially at risk of facing a severe food shortage in the near future. The World Bank report of 2020-2021 estimates that the water shortage will increase to 32% by 2025, which will result in a food shortage of almost 70 million tons. Water shortage could also result in confrontation between the provinces as river sharing has always been a source of problem for Pakistan. According to recent estimates, siltation and climate change will reduce the water storage capacity by 2025 to almost 30%. As for the per capita water storage capacity in Pakistan, it is about 150 m³, which is quite meagre in comparison with that in other countries. Irrigated agriculture will soon be adversely affected due to the reduced surface water supplies and the consequent increase in groundwater abstraction. To make matters worse, over the past decades, a great deal of distrust has developed among the provinces of Pakistan regarding the water distribution issue, and the successive federal governments have failed to formulate a cohesive inter-provincial National Water Policy. Along with the shortages and increasing demand for water, administrative corruption also plagues the water sector and is quite common. The beneficiaries of this water reallocation system are not only the rural elite, for example the large and politically influential landlords, but also the small and medium capitalist farmers. If not properly addressed, these complications of decreasing water resources could result in serious political and economic hostility among the provinces. If it wants to harness its potential to increase storage capacity, Pakistan must improve its water-use efficiency and manage its groundwater and surface water resources in a sustainable way. Strengthening the institutions and removing mistrust among the provinces are the key elements for maintaining a sustainable irrigated agriculture in the Indus Basin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change, population growth and industrial activities continue to threaten water security, especially in the semi-arid regions. Demand management policies are essential in minimising the effects of acute water shortages. Such policies require information on household water consumption patterns and their behavioural practices. This study examines household water consumption behaviour and the adoption of water-efficient appliances in Johannesburg, South Africa. The study uses probit regression models to analyse survey data collected from 889 households during the period November 2017 to February 2018. Results show that while most households do not have water-efficient appliances installed in their homes, they do practise water-efficient behaviour. Older respondents as well as males and lower-income respondents are found to be more likely to practise efficient water-use behaviour. However, biographical variables do not generally influence the adoption of water-efficient appliances. These results are essential for policy-makers when formulating targeted water demand management policies. Thus, policy-makers should focus more on younger people, women and higher-income households when developing campaigns on efficient water-use behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In basins with multiple water uses, it is possible a conflict over water use may occur. This probability increases under a water scarcity scenario. Therefore, it is important to estimate the possible impact of climate change on water availability in this type of basin, to support the decision-making of its users. The Ribeirão do Cipó is an example of a Brazilian watershed susceptible to this situation. Besides having poor hydrological data, it is used for public water supply, electricity generation and recreation. The present work developed a methodology for estimating water availability impacted by climate change, which was particularly applied to this watershed. The methodology consisted of feeding the rainfall-runoff hydrological model called soil moisture accounting procedure with precipitation and evapotranspiration data projected by the Eta-CPTEC regional climate model and nested to three global climate models. The outputs methods were obtained in terms of average monthly flow, for 2010- 2039, 2040-2069 and 2070-2099 for the representative concentration pathway (RCP) 4.5 and RCP 8.5 scenarios. Despite the small amount of hydrological data available on the basin, the results were similar to those of the methods used as reference, thus demonstrating that the methodology used can be an alternative in estimating flow for climate change scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water Resources Management's modern concerns include solutions on water scarcity, water quality problems and the use of economic and decision-support tools. Especially, the agricultural sector in South Europe under the requirements of the Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC(WFD) remains a challenge. Most scholars so far doubt and criticize the implementation of the full cost of irrigation water, review papers highlight the limited progress, and fewer cases provide guidance on how to address this case. The present study applies a novel methodological framework for the estimation of the full cost of irrigation water, based on hydro-economic concepts such as: water balance, profits from agriculture, water value, water quality, monetary, opportunity and environmental costs. Originally, the method has been applied only once in a rural watershed with surface and groundwater resources. Here, a degraded Greek watershed using only groundwater resources is the study area, and the results of the two cases are compared. The model was also examined under demand management strategies and recommendations to scrutinize the effects and the applicability of the proposed measures in hydrological and economic terms. The findings give useful insights on the future management of achieving economic objectives with environmental constraints and the harmonization of Greek agriculture to the WFD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the rapid advance of industrialization and urbanization and the intensified impact of global climate change, the contradiction between the global water shortage and economic growth has become prominent. This paper, taking Henan province as an example, analyzed the influence of water resource policy on regional economic growth through a calculable general equilibrium model and further discussed the relevant policy recommendations. The results showed that the improvement of water supply, water efficiency and water technology could promote the growth of the regional economy and result in a positive effect on regional GDP, employment and resident income. However, the rise of water price has a negative impact on regional economic development, mainly reflected in regional GDP, employment and household income. The improvement of water price, water efficiency and water conservancy technology would lead to a decrease in regional water consumption, while only the increase of the water supply would lead to an increase in water consumption. Accordingly, the paper puts forward policy suggestions, such as accelerating the improvement of water conservancy facilities, establishing a reasonable water price mechanism and actively exploring experience in water conservation and emission reduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sri Lanka has no water scarcity within the country, and per capita, water availability is adequate to cater for the country's estimated peak population. Nevertheless, the frequent variability of spatial and temporal water availability and extreme events have built up a water scarcity in Sri Lanka, which has been observed during the last two to three decades. Therefore, effective and efficient water governance is most important in today's context, and regular review and amendment of policies, laws, and regulations are crucial to mitigate water scarcity. Although a few attempts were initiated, none of them succeeded. In this study, historical and present water governance mechanisms, including coordinating mechanisms and implementing water management agencies in Sri Lanka, were comprehensively reviewed. Further, the previously proposed water policies, their status and reasons for the failures of policies were discussed. Finally, the formulation of a novel institutional arrangement or altering the existing institutional arrangement with shared data and allocating non-shared responsibilities to each institution is suggested for better water governance in Sri Lanka. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multiple use water system (MUWS) is an approach to water services planning and design of new and rehabilitated systems. It is informed by input on people's multiple water uses, reuses, and needs at their preferred sites within communities. Although MUWS has been implemented in different parts of Nepal to address water security, the motivating factors in adoption of MUWS have not been previously clear. To better understand farmers' interests, the socio-economic context, and severity of water scarcity problems, we analyzed determinant factors in adoption of MUWS related to the extent of area under vegetable production in Annapurna rural municipality of Kaski district. We surveyed 150 households and conducted eight key informant interviews. A binary logistic regression model showed that five variables, namely: households sharing a tap, water tariff, water volume used, availability of a water storage system, and water sufficiency during the dry season have significant positive influences on the adoption of MUWS. In contrast, two variables, namely: caste and access to water have significant negative influences on the adoption behavior of farmers. Likewise, the linear regression model showed agricultural crops grown, total landholdings, and water quality influenced the extent of vegetable production. Thus the socio-economic condition, access to resources and the institution affect the adoption behavior of farmers. Agriculture policy intervention at provincial/national level should highlight the importance of adoption of MUWS and its benefit in terms of securing water, economy and food in a changing climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The general perception of canal irrigation systems in India is one of built infrastructure with low service performance. This paper presents an analytical framework, applied to the Sina medium irrigation system in Maharashtra state of India, to study the performance of an expandedwater influence zone (WIZ) including a buffer zone outside the canal command area (CCA) influenced by the irrigation system'swater resources. The framework used satellite-based estimates of land-use and cropping patterns. The results indicate that there is hardly any gap between the irrigation potential created (IPC) and the irrigation potential utilized (IPU) in the CCA. The fraction of consumptive water use (CWU) of irrigation is low in the CCA, but almost one in theWIZ, due to the reuse of return flows in the WIZ. Future investments should focus on increasing economic water productivity ($/m³) in order to enhance the resilience of the farming community in theWIZ, which is frequently affected by water scarcity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study, conducted in western hilly areas of Nepal, inventoried and mapped over 4,222 springs from five different watersheds. The study showed that more than 50% of the spring sources were found under natural conditions, i.e., open spring whereas 15% of them were of pond type. Similarly, the other 15% spring was recorded as a concrete structure or tank while 1% was determined to be a well. Attempts were made to identify if a change in water discharge from springs relates to rainfall patterns. The inter-annual variability analysis shows a significant fluctuation suggesting variation in water discharge across spring sources. The lowest amount of yearly rainfall received in the river basin is governed by decreasing water flow from the springs in the upper and mid-hills of Nepal. Besides, the intra-annual variation (i.e., seasonal and concentrative nature of rainfall only during monsoon) leads to shortage of drinking water and other domestic purposes (e.g., cooking, cleaning) during the dry months of the year. This study, based on the estimation of discharge flow in these springs, revealed that about 70% were decreasing and, in particular, the flow over the recent ten years decreased significantly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many emerging and developing countries hybrid systems, not completely public nor private, have become a regrettable unstandardized 'standard' for water and sanitation service (WSS) provisions. These spotted zebras deserve the attention of both the scientific community and policymakers being ambiguous solutions. On the one hand, the hybrid systems allow broadening the access to the water supply service in face of the challenge to manage, maintain and adapt large infrastructures in a time of increasing climate change impacts, watersupply demand and drinking water scarcity. On the other hand, by embodying informal artefacts and unregulated behaviours to use natural resources, the hybrid systems enhance the vulnerability and precariousness of the population that is normally not reached by the formal public infrastructure. The paper presents findings of research conducted in Queimados, in the Rio de Janeiro Metropolitan Area. Our study suggests that grassroots solutions, albeit being an opportunity when integrated, represent a threat when standing alone, and it is critical to further discuss ways to promote such integration within a structured institutional public framework. Conclusions stress the need to rethink the grassroots engagement within socio-technical transition emphasizing the nexus between political culture, civic education and infrastructural solutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many parts of Europe are facing an increased risk of water scarcity and a potentially disastrous impact on freshwater ecosystems. In line with the Water Framework Directive and the 2006 Water Act, France developed the Sustainable Withdrawals Reform (SWR) in 2008, which aimed to restore a balance between the available water resources and people's needs across the country by 2017. While the literature has generally focused on the economics of e-flow policy instruments, few studies have analysed the politics of their implementation at the local level or how local interests and strategies influence the process. Inspired by the political sociology of policy instruments, and based on in-depth case studies in two catchments of the Durance River Basin (in southeast France), we argue that in order to achieve e-flows in such catchments, the SWR eventually encouraged new capital-intensive water transfers. Beyond their technical aspects, these infrastructure projects engender new hydro-social configurations by modifying irrigation technology and agricultural practices, as well as the spatial control of water. The impact of these projects on the environment remains uncertain. The discussion focuses on the role of key intermediaries and shows how the framing of negotiations leads certain stakeholders and issues to be excluded from the implementation process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water scarcity is a persistent problem in diverse regions of the world. This study focuses on the extreme scarcity of water affecting La Paz, a municipality in the west of Bolivia. The intense drought of the last few decades and the inadequate management of water utilities have impacted several factors. Within this context, this study identified that establishing efficient water resource management is essential to guarantee social welfare. The researchers analyzed the scarcity of water in La Paz by using the Strategic Choice Approach, which is a problem structuring method based on a strategic process that takes different types of uncertainty into account. The results of this study revealed decision actions and uncertainties in two categories: the present and the future. The outputs enabled a strategic plan to be drawn up that tackles the scarcity of water responsibly and equitably. Innovation and investment in ways to reuse water are fundamental to developing a responsible solution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The interruption of essential water services in Cape Town, foreshadowed as 'Day Zero,' is one of several recent examples of urban water scarcity connected to the language of urgent climate change. Johannesburg, with its larger and growing population and deeply enmeshed water and power infrastructures, is currently regarded as one drought away from disaster. As a result, the lessons to be learned from Cape Town are under active debate in South Africa. We used Q method to examine the structure of perspectives on urban water scarcity among South African water management practitioners. Our results illustrate distinct viewpoints differentiated by focus on corruption and politics, supply and demand systems, and social justice concerns as well as a distinct cohort of pragmatic optimists. Our analysis underscores the significance of public trust and institutional effectiveness, regardless of otherwise sound policy or infrastructure tools. As practitioners explicitly connect domains of competency to solvable and critical problems, integrated systems approaches will require deliberate interventions. Furthermore, urban water crises exacerbate and are exacerbated by existing experiences of racial and economic inequality, but this effect is masked by focus on demand management of average per capita water consumption and characterization of water scarcity as 'the new normal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the water supply systems, their sociopolitical dynamics, and the future of water management in two Indian towns in the Eastern Himalaya, Kalimpong in West Bengal and Singtam in Sikkim. The research was centred around issues of demand and supply, water scarcity and stress, equity, water governance, and the sustainable conservation and management of water resources in a climate change context. Methodologically based on surveys, focus group discussions, and key informants' interviews, this study finds that spring sources are drying alarmingly in Singtam, even as demand is increasing dramatically due to a floating population that is more than the number of local inhabitants. The town suffers from the lack of an adequate reservoir facility and the frequent damage of water supply pipes during the monsoon. Kalimpong faces acute water shortages all year round. The political tug of war between the state government agencies and the local government around the management and supply of water, declining water discharge in spring sources, the lack of water infrastructure for repair, maintenance, and supply, and the glaring inequity between the higher, middle, and lower income groups are the immediate issues around water in Kalimpong. The spring sources that supply drinking water to Kalimpong and Singtam need immediate conservation measures to arrest the declining state of discharge. Micro-planning at the local level, reviving drying springs, and the adoption of appropriate soil and water conservation practices on a watershed basis are all important ways forward. The development of water security plans and their strict enforcement through multi-institutional collaboration can contribute to improved water governance and socioecological restoration for sustainable water resources management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Nepal, water institutions have played a very significant role, and in Tansen and Damauli, the presence of user groups has indicated that proper management of water can help people avert critical water shortages. However, although in both Tansen and Damauli the user groups have been operating for a long time, their performances vary. In Tansen, infrastructural constraints tend to throw up challenges, although operational hazards associated with the supply systems are no less threatening. Moreover, there is large-scale corruption in the systems' upkeep and maintenance, allowing low grade vendors to operate in place of readily available efficient institutions. In Damauli, the systems have been rather perfectly managed, except for minor glitches from time to time. Funding has been good and community bonding has paid off. This paper delves into the community-managed water systems in the two cities and how the performance varies across them and the factors that play a role. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many towns in the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) are experiencing permanent water crises due to increasing population pressure, urbanization, and poor management of existing water sources. This paper focuses on two towns - Mussoorie and Devprayag in the western IHR - to understand various aspects of the growing water scarcity and urban water management. In the current scenario of a changing climate, natural springs, their main water resource, are drying up. Mussoorie experiences an acute shortage of water in summer, precisely when the town hosts numerous tourists. In Devprayag, religious tourism and in-migration from rural areas contribute to rising demand. The reduced discharge in nearby streams has widened the demand-supply gap. An integrated management of water sources is crucial to solving water problems in Mussoorie and Devprayag. In both towns, little effort has been made towards recharging existing water sources. Detailed planning of the water supply system while being mindful of the floating population, a proper sewage and storm water management system, and rainwater harvesting schemes, are absent. There is an urgent need to adopt a comprehensive approach to solving urban water issues, covering aspects of demand, supply and water resources management in these hill towns for adaptive water management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are numerous studies regarding water pricing, demand and elasticity for certain regions. However, in Brazil, there are no studies on these matters, even though there is a need to explore the behavior of Brazil's population, especially because the nation is susceptible to extreme water events. São Paulo State, Brazil's most important economic region, has recently experienced a severe water scarcity status. In an attempt to control water demand, the São Paulo Water Agency (SABESP) implemented a 'bonus and onus' program. In this context, the aim of this study was to analyze the SABESP programs in terms of their structures and results using a panel model. The econometric results showed that (i) the bonus program was successful and more effective than the onus program, and (ii) water consumption reduction was more significant in regions supplied by water reservoirs where the relative water level was lower, although inhabitants of other regions also reduced their water consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent research in the studies of socio-ecology has raised an intriguing side effect associated with coping strategies and perceptions of environmental risk - where a perceived ability to cope with the effects of climate change and ecological degradation leads to an over-estimation of self-reliance and resilience. Known as the 'paradox of resilience', little has been understood about how or when such over-estimations occur. This paper sheds light on such phenomena by constructing a fabula (or narrative structure) of the paradox by investigating the case of extreme water shortage and the coping strategies of residents in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Despite the long delay in providing public access to water, and the high cost this imposes on the public, members of the public have grown accustomed to the unreliable water supply, and willingly accept the high and coping costs of finding alternative sources of water. Using the lived experiences method, the paper reveals a link between self-perceptions of resilience, the incremental nature of the problem, a perceived ability to pay coping costs, and a lack of confidence in government capacity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water resources in humid regions are perceived as abundant, and water-governance systems are based on the expectation of consistent availability of water to meet all needs. In arid regions, in contrast, the operating assumption is that water is a scarce resource that must be allocated systematically to avoid conflict. The 'myth of abundance' common in humid regions is counterproductive to effective water governance. This paper provides an overview of the concepts of water scarcity and water security and explains how water governance in humid regions fits into these frameworks. It then addresses the riparian system for allocating water rights and how this system promotes the myth of abundance. Three case studies are presented from humid regions of the Anglo-phone world, highlighting the shortcomings of abundance-based water-governance systems in these regions. Finally, the water-security framework is advocated as an alternative that addresses fundamental flaws of the abundance-based approach, namely issues related to ecosystems, water quality, disasters, and conflict. Using a goal of water security, rather than a perception of abundance, as the basis for water governance will lead to improved outcomes, especially given future climate change and population growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water crisis and, particularly, drop in rainfall in Iran are not only an environmental matter but also a security issue. This paper tries to draw attention to the substantial social consequences of climate change in Iran and particularly addresses whether precipitation scarcity from 2007 to 2014 has a conflict-making effect in the province of Iran using the system GMM model. We show that rainfall shortage and the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI), as an index of drought, could stimulate the propensity for individuals to engage in disruptive activities in provinces of Iran. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water trading is an effective method for solving regional water shortage problems and addressing the uneven spatiotemporal distribution of water resources. Therefore, taking the Middle Route of China's South-to-North Water Diversion Project (MR-SNWDP) as the research object, we present a study on a feasible water trading scheme in the water-receiving area of Henan Province. First, the tradable water of each calculation unit in the water-receiving area was calculated by analyzing the water-saving potential of different industries. Second, a multi-objective optimization model for trading water between different regions was developed, taking the largest social and economic benefits of the water-receiving area as the objective function. Finally, non-dominated sorting genetic algorithms were used to solve this optimization model, and an optimal scheme for water trading was proposed. The simulated results of the optimal scheme indicate that the total water shortage of the water-receiving areas will decrease by 650.69 million m3, and there will be a surplus of 14.98 million m3 of water, and the gross national product will increase by RMB 130.5 billion at a rate of 5.2%. This demonstrates that the waterreceiving areas of Henan Province can effectively alleviate local water shortages by trading water without increasing external water supplies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Decision-making is a significant tool in water resources management applications. This work addresses the global management decision dilemma for the sustainability of the groundwater resources of a watershed: should stakeholders use groundwater for irrigation and human consumption or should they construct infrastructure, for example water reservoirs, for irrigation purposes? The former constitutes an easy but non-sustainable solution, while the latter protects the groundwater body from overpumping, avoids the associated overpumping penalties, and utilizes both surface and groundwater watershed resources. The main question arising in the second case relates to the amount of surface water that can be used taking into consideration water scarcity and potentially dry hydrological years. Therefore, this proposed decision-making framework will provide the best management solution for the water needs of an area based on the balanced use of surface and groundwater resources, considering the ecosystem sustainability and the surface and groundwater sustainability. In addition, this work can help decision-makers to examine and compare various scenarios using different approaches before making a decision regarding the cost and the capacity of a hydrologic/hydraulic project, and the varied economic charges that water table limit violations can cause inside an audit interval. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water scarcity and inadequate infrastructure for sanitation are two challenges that are emblematic to Kenya and other developing nations in Sub-Saharan Africa. Under such circumstances, water reuse has the potential to address these challenges but only under a favourable policy environment. In this paper, policy documents were considered as the ethnographic object to understand how people talk about water reuse in Kenya through policies, plans, regulations and guidelines. Using a general inductive approach to content analysis, the findings suggest that Kenya's policy on water reuse has progressed, especially in the recognition of the potential of reused water for addressing water scarcity, pollution, cleaner industrial production, food production, and climate change adaptation and mitigation. While many of the water reuse issues have been discussed under water and irrigation, environment and industrialization, other key sectors such as food and agriculture, housing, urban development and health remain silent on water reuse. Therefore, there is a need to take water reuse conversations beyond the water, environment, and industrialisation sectors if we are to address the water supply and wastewater management issues. Likewise, the study reminds us of the importance of foregrounding public perception and harmonized institutional arrangements in the success of water reuse in the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Paddy, which is predominantly cultivated under the conventional inundation method, is the largest water consuming crop in India. Given looming water scarcity, the inundation method of paddy cultivation is no longer sustainable. A newly introduced method of paddy cultivation, popularly known as the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), is reportedly helping to reduce water consumption and increase land productivity. SRI has now been in practice for some years in India but the various impacts of SRI on water saving, land and water productivity as well as on profitability which are expected to vary in different ecological settings - namely in tank, canal and groundwater irrigated areas - remain largely unexplored. In this study, using data collected from a total sample of 300 farmers from three different settings in Tamil Nadu state, an attempt has been made to fill this gap. The study shows that by adopting the SRI method farmers can save about 40% of irrigation water and increase land productivity by about 46% while reducing the cost of cultivation by 23% over the conventional inundation method. While increasing irrigation water productivity and economic water productivity substantially, SRI also generates an additional profit of Rs 17,169/ acre (1 USD = INR 70.12; 1 acre = 4047 m2) compared to that realised by non-SRI farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Water Poverty Index (WPI) standardizes water scarcity diagnostics by considering natural, environmental, and socioeconomic factors which reduce, facilitate, or prevent water access. To integrate these factors, the WPI includes five components: resource, environment (negatively affected by development), capacity, access, and use (positively affected by development). Nevertheless, the place granted to hydrological factors is questioned, and many studies insist on the problematic correlation of WPI with the well-known Human Development Index (HDI). Calculating WPI in the socially heterogeneous and semi-arid context of the State of Chihuahua (Mexico), adapting traditional methodology thanks to geographic information systems (GIS) tools and the corresponding databases, allows discussion of those points. This study uses multi-criteria evaluations from TerrSet software to calculate WPI while preserving specific data precision. In this process, scale calculation and indicator normalization are adapted through raster maps and fuzzy techniques to valorize specific hydrological data. This opens interesting discussions for multidimensional water scarcity diagnostics, since they increase the visibility of diverse water scarcity issues in WPI results. In fact, concentrating socioeconomic factors in corresponding components and valuing GIS alternatives provides a diagnostic different from the HDI and sensitive to hydrological factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2015, 16.52 km3 of water was consumed for energy production in China, of which coal production, thermoelectric power and coke used 57.7%, 28.8% and 6.2%, respectively. Most water is consumed in China's northern (north and northwest) provinces where water is scarce and energy production's impact on water resources is further intensified in the north when this water scarcity is taken into account. The top five provinces with the largest consumption of scarce water by energy production are predominantly concentrated in the North China Plain. In 2015, nine provinces did not meet their Industrial Water Efficiency Improvement targets set by the 'Three Red Lines' water policy. Of these nine, five provinces (Shanxi, Shandong, Hebei, Xinjiang and Ningxia) are located in northern regions and face severe water stresses. Water consumed by energy production occupied more than 20% of the Industrial Water Allowances (IWAs) that were allowed by the 'Three Red Lines' policy in all five provinces. In Shanxi, energy consumption exceeded more than three times its IWA. Our findings underscore that energy production imposes severe pressure on water-scarce provinces' compliance with the 'Three Red Lines' policy and thus suggest a necessity to coordinate cross-sectoral policies, planning and investments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the first analysis of water use in the Australian economy to account for inter-state trade, exports and consumption patterns, across all economic sectors and incorporating a temporal analysis. This is achieved by using the environmentally extended input-output technique, combining state-level input-output and water accounts from the Australian Bureau of Statistics. Results show that the three big eastern economies (New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland) rely mostly on water used within their jurisdictions. Approximately one-third of water consumption is for exported commodities, with the biggest export flows of virtual water being associated with agricultural production. Comparing results across the years (2000-2011), the water consumption associated with the provision of goods and services has decreased by 32% for exports, and by 38% for domestic markets. To date in Australia, the focus for improved trans-boundary water management (within Australia) has been on improved mechanisms for sharing physical allocation of water; these results provide the trans-boundary economic dependencies related to water availability. Recent innovations in the compilation of economic input-output models create an opportunity to progress this analysis, exploring in detail the economy-water interlinkages. It is our intention that the paper shows the value of analysing water flows using the multi-regional input-output techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The world is facing a growing water scarcity problem in the most diverse regions. The Rio Grande do Norte (RN), a Brazilian semi-arid region, is facing its severest drought in the last 100 years. Given this context, managing water resources and combating the effects of the drought have become even more important. Decisions made in this context may involve multiple criteria established by more than one decision-maker. To tackle this issue, a multicriteria model for group decisions is proposed in order to rank the municipalities of the region and thus guide the public administration's efforts in tackling the drought and mitigating its effects. The applicability of the model is exemplified by studying the Apodi-Mossoró river basin, for which the PROMETHEE GDSS method was selected and the preferences of three decision-makers were calculated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water scarcity has been the main restraint factor for the development of oasis cities around the world. Urumqi, a typical oasis city in arid northwestern China, is facing an increasing water shortage with rapid development over the past decades. In this paper, we use a system dynamics method and multi-scenario simulation to predict the water-resource demand and the supporting capacity of water resources for the urban development of Urumqi under different scenarios. The results show that existing water resources can hardly meet the needs of urban development. Even if water transfer and saving projects are adopted, in the medium and high-speed development scenarios, there will still be a large water deficit in Urumqi in 2030. Also, to relieve the constraint of water resources on urban development, both water-use structure and industrial structure should be optimized. It is suggested that the demands of ecological water and domestic water are given a primary guarantee; that the proportion of industrial water should significantly increase while drastically decreasing the proportion of agricultural water; that the development of secondary industry should be strengthened while reducing the proportion of primary industry; and, finally, restriction placed on high-water-consuming industry while encouraging low- and medium-water-consuming industries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]