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It is critical to attribute faecal contamination to its original source in order to assess public health risks and implement effective interventions to mitigate future contamination. This study aimed to identify the primary sources of faecal contamination in water using microbial source tracking markers in water-stressed rural communities. A total of 1128 water samples were collected sequentially from the main source (river/borehole) to the households. Six host-specific genetic markers were used to detect faecal contamination in the water samples (BacHum and HF183, BacCow, Pig-2-Bac, Cytb and BacCan). Of the 564 water samples tested during the wet season, 37.94% (n = 214) were positive for human and animal-specific Bacteroidales marker genes, while 31.73% (n = 179) of the 564 tested during the dry season were also positive. During the wet season, animal faecal contamination was more prevalent among the positive samples (Cytb: 20.56%, n = 44; BacCan: 19.16%, n = 41). By contrast, human-origin faecal contamination was dominant during the dry season (BacHum: 23.46%, n = 42; HF183: 21.23%, n = 38). Identifying the origin of faecal contamination will assist in implementing targeted intervention strategies for the effective prevention of pathogen transmission in water-stressed rural communities in order to protect public health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The implementation of water and sanitation safety plans (WSSP) has the potential of greatly improving the challenge of resource-limited drinking-water supplies. However, the most effective tool to make WSSP successful is understanding of the factors that contribute to hindering the implementation of these plans, specifically in rural communities. This study therefore aimed at assessing the status of basic services and determining the factors that contribute to hampering the process of WSSP in rural communities. A survey was conducted between March 2020 and March 2021 in rural communities of the Vhembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa. The overall results indicate that poverty, unemployment, lack of access to purified water, and inadequate sanitation facilities have resulted in waterborne diseases reported within the communities and have a major impact in hindering WSSP. Other barriers observed are inequality regarding financial power, absent and degrading water and sanitation infrastructures, and lack of protection and maintenance of natural water sources. Therefore, there is a need for community members to be educated on proper behavior and perceptions towards sanitation, including working hand-in-hand with different stakeholders, men and women from communities, and different cultures and religions to overcome these barriers, so that human disease associated with water supply, wastewater reuse, and sanitation in rural communities can be alleviated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]