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Background: The coexistence of multiple standard modifiable risk factors (SMuRFs),classical and novel risk factors (RFs) for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) is common in the Middle East (ME). There is a paucity of data on the coexistence of these RFs in ME young women., Aim: Comparing the prevalence and the statistical patterns of the SMuRFs, classical and novel RFs in target population., Methods: In this case-control (1:2) study, consecutive young women aged 18-50 years were enrolled in 12 centers (July 2021 to October 2023). Prevalence and coexistence of 19 RFs were compared between cases with ASCVD and their controls. The RFs included SMuRFs (hypertension, type 2 diabetes, dyslipidemia, and cigarette smoking), other classical RF (obesity, family history of premature ASCVD, and physical inactivity), novel RFs and social determinants of health (health insurance, place of residence, depression, and level of education)., Results: The study included 627 subjects; 209 had ASCVD (median age 46 years, IQR 49-42 years) and 418 controls (median age 45 years, IQR 48-41 years). The presence of 1-2 RFs; (ASCVD: 63.2%, Control: 54.1%, p=0.037) and 3-4 RFs; (ASCVD: 27.8%, Control: 3.3%, p < 0.001) SMuRFs was more prevalent in women with ASCVD. Similarly, the presence of 4-5 RFs; (ASCVD: 40.7%, Control: 14.6%, p<0.001), and 6-7 (ASCVD: 10.5%, Control: 1%, p < 0.001). The classical RF were also significantly common in these women. The distribution of multiple novel RF was not statistically significant across both groups. Finally, regarding the socioeconomic RFs in women with ASCVDs, the presence of 1-2 RFs (ASCVD: 59.8%, Control: 76.1%, p < 0.001) was significantly less common while the presence of 3-4 RFs (ASCVD: 39.2%, Control: 21.8%, p < 0.001) was vastly more common., Conclusion: An elevated rate of coexistence of classical RF in the case group, mainly socioeconomic and SMuRFs. By managing them primary and secondary ASCVDs prevention attained., Competing Interests: The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work., (© 2024 Al-Shudifat et al.)

Purpose: Women are increasingly concerned by coronary heart disease (CHD), with peculiarities of their own, particularly concerning risk factors. The aim of the study was to assess the risk factors for CHD in Lebanese women over forty., Patients and Methods: A case-control study was carried out in 6 hospitals in Beirut and Mount-Lebanon, from December 2018 to December 2019 including 1500 patients (1200 controls and 300 cases). Women were stratified into pre- and post-menopausal groups. Personal and medical data were collected from hospital records and during an interview where validated questionnaires were used. Binary logistic regressions were performed to investigate potential predictors of CHD in the 2 groups., Results: In post-menopausal women, dyslipidemia (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 3.018; 95% confidence interval, 2.102-4.332), hypertension (aOR: 2.449, [1.386-4.327]), a family history of CHD (aOR: 2.724, [1.949-3.808]), cigarette smoking (aOR: 2.317, [1.574-3.410]) and common non-rheumatic joint pain (aOR: 1.457, [1.053-2.016]) were strongly associated with CHD. Conversely, living in Mount Lebanon seemed protective, compared to Beirut (aOR: 0.589, [0.406-0.854]), as well as having a moderate monthly income (aOR: 0.450, [0.220-0.923]), adhering to a Mediterranean diet (aOR: 0.965, [0.936-0.994]), and practicing physical activity [PA] (aOR: 0.396, [0.206-0.759] and 0.725, [0.529-0.992], respectively for high and moderate vs low PA). In pre-menopausal women, dyslipidemia (aOR: 6.938, [1.835-26.224]), hypertension (aOR: 6.195, [1.318-29.119]), family histories of dyslipidemia (aOR: 6.143, [1.560-24.191]) and CHD (aOR: 4.739, [1.336-16.805]) reached statistical significance., Conclusion: The identification of factors associated with CHD in women, some of which are frequent and trivialized in post-menopause, underlines the need to put in place specific and dedicated CHD prevention strategies in women., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest for this work., (© 2022 Ghaddar et al.)

Background: Lipid profile abnormalities are an integral part of metabolic syndrome (MetS) and major underlying causes of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and type-2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Lipid profile abnormalities in a patient with MetS are resulted due to the presence of central obesity and insulin resistance. In Ethiopia, the burden and predictors of lipid profile abnormalities in a patient with MetS are not well known. Thus, this study aimed to determine the prevalence of lipid profile abnormalities and predictors among patients with MetS in southwest Ethiopia., Methods and Materials: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 381 patients with MetS from September to December 2019 with a response rate of 100%. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data on socio-demographic and behavioral factors. Waist circumference, height, weight, and blood pressures were measured. The venous blood sample was collected for glucose and lipid profile determination. Data were entered and analyzed by using SPSS version 21. Binary logistic regression and Pearson's correlation analyses were performed. A p-value was set at a <0.05 for statistical significance., Results: In this study, about 58% of participants were at least one or more lipid profile abnormalities with the 95% CI (52.8-62.7). About 67.2%, 44.6%,18.4%, and 14.2% of study participants were low HDL, high TG, LDL, and TC, respectively. Central obesity (adjusted odds ratio (AOR): 1.89, 95% CI: 1.14-3.14), increasing age (AOR: 2.08, 95% CI: 1.27-3.4), higher BMI (AOR: 2.06, 95% CI: 1.23-3.4), being hypertensive (AOR: 3.48, 95% CI: 2.12-5.7) and increasing blood glucose level (AOR: 2.34, 95% CI: 1.36-4.03) were independent predictors of lipid profile abnormalities (dyslipidemia)., Conclusion: In this study area, a high (58%) prevalence of dyslipidemia was observed in study participants, and increasing age, higher BMI, central obesity, hypertension, and high blood glucose level were identified as independent predictors of dyslipidemia among patients with MetS. Prevention and control of dyslipidemia and its predictors among patients with MetS were recommended., Competing Interests: The authors declared that they have no conflicts of interest for this work., (© 2021 Haile et al.)

Background: The World Health Organization (WHO) proposed the integrated care for older people (ICOPE) screening tool to identify functional impairment. We explore the association of geriatric functional impairment and hypertension, diabetes, dyslipidemia in the community-dwelling elderly., Methods: We enrolled individuals aged at least 65 with hypertension, diabetes, or dyslipidemia; or those aged at least 75 from May to July 2019. We applied ICOPE tools to evaluate six function assessments: cognitive decline, limited mobility, malnutrition, visual impairment, hearing loss, and depressive symptoms. Factors were analyzed using stepwise multivariable linear regression for ICOPE scores and logistic regression for geriatric functional impairment. All analyses were adjusted for age and glomerular filtration rate., Results: We enrolled 457 participants including 303 (66.3%) participants with hypertension, 296 (64.8%) diabetes, and 221 (48.4%) dyslipidemia. Seventy-eight (17.1%) participants have at least one geriatric functional impairment, including 41 (25.9%) participants aged ≥ 75 and 37 (12.4%) aged 65-74. The ICOPE score (0.4 ± 0.6) of participants aged at least 75 was higher than that (0.1 ± 0.4) of the participants aged 65-74 (p < 0.001). Dyslipidemia (p = 0.002) was positively associated with ICOPE score. Dyslipidemia (odds ratio: 2.15, 95% confidence interval: 1.27-3.70, p = 0.005), not hypertension (p = 0.3) and diabetes (p = 0.9), was associated with geriatric functional impairment. Visual impairment was the most common function impairment. Female was linked to limited mobility, renal function was associated with mobility (p < 0.001) and nutrition (p = 0.02)., Conclusion: Dyslipidemia but not hypertension, diabetes is linked to geriatric functional impairment in community-dwelling elderly. Lower renal function is associated with decreased mobility and nutrition. More studies are needed to determine if treatment of dyslipidemia reduces geriatric functional impairment., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests., (© 2021 Cheng et al.)

Despite widespread evidence of the effectiveness of lipid modification for the reduction of cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk, lipid modification goals are commonly underachieved in the United Kingdom (UK). In order to understand current UK lipid management guidance and the corresponding attainment of recommended lipid lowering goals relating to treatment with statins and ezetimibe, a literature review was conducted using PubMed focusing on publications between January 2017 and February 2020 in order to capture the most up-to-date literature. Identified publications were reviewed against key clinical guidelines for lipid management in relation to CVD risk from the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE, CG181), the Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN, 149) and European Society of Cardiology (ESC)/European Atherosclerosis Society (EAS). Cholesterol lowering goals are central to current lipid lowering therapy guidance, although specific goals vary depending on the guideline and patients' individual risk profile. Current guidance by NICE and SIGN specifies that treatment should achieve a greater than 40% reduction in non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (non-HDL-C) at 3 months of treatment, while the ESC/EAS place emphasis on the lowering of low-density lipoprotein (LDL-C) and total cholesterol. Yet, despite widespread availability of guidance and consistent messaging that lipid lowering goals should be ambitious, current evidence suggests a significant proportion of UK patients have sub-optimal reductions in cholesterol/non-HDL-C/LDL-C. The reasons for this are reported to be multifactorial, including a lack of compliance with guidelines, particularly regarding high-intensity statin prescribing, patient adherence, statin intolerance and statin reluctance as well as wider genetic factors. A number of possible strategies to improve current lipid management and attainment of lipid-lowering goals were identified, including improving the patient-healthcare professional partnership, conducting audits of local prescribing versus guidance, implementing plans for the refinement of current services and considering alternative options such as cost-effective single pill combinations for improving adherence., Competing Interests: The development of this manuscript was initiated and funded by Daiichi Sankyo UK, who were involved in the design of the literature review and the review and approval of the manuscript. TR has received funding to attend conferences from Sanofi-Genzyme and for research projects (investigator-led and multicentre trials) from Alexion Pharma UK Ltd, AmGen Ltd, Boehringer Ingelheim GmbH, Dalcor Pharmaceuticals, Sanofi-Genzyme, Shire Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Takeda Ltd. He has no direct stock holdings in any pharmaceutical company or any patents.AP has received funding to attend conferences from Sanofi.SHQ is an employee of Daiichi Sankyo UK Ltd. The parent company Daiichi Sankyo Europe GmbH are marketing authorisation holders of bempedoic acid and the bempedoic acid/ezetimibe combination in the UK, European Economic Area and Switzerland., (© 2021 Reynolds et al.)

Purpose: Real-world data may provide insight into relationships between high triglycerides (TG), a modifiable cardiovascular (CV) risk factor, and increased heart failure (HF) risk., Patients and Methods: This retrospective administrative claims analysis included statin-treated patients aged ≥45 years with diabetes and/or atherosclerotic CV disease enrolled in 2010 and followed for ≥6 months to March 2016. Patients with TG ≥150 mg/dL and a comparator cohort with TG <150 mg/dL and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol >40 mg/dL were included. A sub-analysis was conducted in patients with TG 200-499 mg/dL. Hazard ratios (HR) were calculated from multivariate analyses controlled for patient characteristics and comorbidities using Cox proportional hazard modeling. New diagnosis of HF required diagnosis in the follow-up period without prior evidence of HF., Results: Multivariate analyses revealed a 19% higher rate of new HF diagnosis in the TG ≥150 mg/dL cohort (HR=1.192; 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.134-1.252; P <0.001; n=24,043) and a 24% higher rate in the TG 200-499 mg/dL sub-cohort (HR=1.235; 95% CI=1.160-1.315; P <0.001; n=11,657), each versus the comparator cohort (n=30,218)., Conclusion: In a real-world analysis of statin-treated patients with high CV risk, elevated and high TG were significant predictors of new HF diagnosis., Competing Interests: Peter P. Toth is a consultant and/or speaker for Amarin Pharma Inc, Amgen, Kowa, Novo-Nordisk, Regeneron, and Sanofi. He also reports personal fees and non-financial support from Amarin Pharma Inc, during the conduct of the study; personal fees, non-financial support from Amarin Pharma Inc, outside the submitted work. Sephy Philip and Craig Granowitz are employees and stock shareholders of Amarin Pharma Inc. Dr Sephy Philip has a patent compositions and methods for lowering triglycerides in a subject having reduced kidney function pending to Amarin Pharma Inc. Michael Hull is an employee of Optum. The authors report no other conflicts of interest in this work., (© 2019 Toth et al.)

Objectives: Treatment with lipid-lowering therapy (LLT) such as statins, cholesterol absorption inhibitors, or PCSK9 inhibitors is of major importance for the survival of patients with atherosclerotic diseases, and adherence to LLT is essential for treatment success. The intention of this study was to investigate adherence to LLT in patients with coronary heart disease (CHD) in a 12-month follow-up period in Saxony-Anhalt, the state with the highest incidence and mortality for CHD in Germany., Patients and Methods: Data were taken from 542 hospitalized patients with angiographically documented CHD who were prospectively included in this study conducted in the Department of Medicine III of the University Clinics (Halle). We collected data concerning medication at discharge and after 3 and 12 months., Results: A total of 542 patients were included in this study. Mean age was 69.2 ± 11.8 years. In all, 68.8% were males, 165 (30.4%) were smokers, 39.7% suffered from diabetes, and 86.9% had arterial hypertension. The follow-up time of this study was 12 months. At discharge, 463 patients (85.4%) were being treated with a statin. After 3 months 409 (75.5%) and after 12 months, 395 patients (72.9%) were still on statin therapy, respectively. In total treatment, adherence for the statin medication decreased by 15.7% in 12 months. Kaplan-Meier analyses showed that survival, taken as freedom of death from any cause, decreased significantly if statin treatment was stopped (p=0.001). This was confirmed by multivariate Cox regression (HR 1.78, p=0.012). Ezetemibe was prescribed for 56 patients at discharge (10.3%). After 3 months, 40 patients (7.4%) were still taking ezetemibe. After 12 months, adherence to ezetemibe treatment decreased to 4.1% (22 patients)., Conclusion: During follow-up for 3 and 12 months, adherence for statin therapy decreased by 15.7% and for ezetemibe by 46.6%. Here, low adherence to statin therapy was associated with fatal outcome., Competing Interests: Dr Michel Noutsias reports personal fees from Abbott, personal fees from AstraZeneca, personal fees from Bayer, personal fees from MiltenyiBiotech, personal fees from Novartis, and personal fees from Zoll, outside the submitted work. The authors report no other conflicts of interest in this work., (© 2019 Waßmuth et al.)

Introduction: Diabetes is often accompanied by undiagnosed dyslipidemia. The aim of the study is to investigate the clinical relevance of lipid profiles and lipid ratios as predictive biochemical models for glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Methods: This is a retrospective study recruiting 140 patients with T2DM during a one-year period, 2018-2019, at the Diabetic Center Sanglah General Hospital and Internal Medicine Polyclinic Puri Raharja General Hospital. Demographic characteristics, glycosylated hemoglobin (HBA1c) , and lipid profile were recorded and analyzed using SPSS version 25.0 for Windows. The sample is then classified into good (HBA1c≤7) and poor (HBA1c>7) glycemic control. Risk analysis model, receiver operator characteristics (ROC) analysis, and correlation test were used to evaluate the association of HBA1c level with lipid profile and lipid ratio parameters. Result: Lipid profile findings such as total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) , triglycerides (TG), and lipid ratio parameter (LDL-C to high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) ratio) were higher in patients in the poor glycemic control group ( p <0.05) and HDL-C was significantly lower in patients with poor glycemic control ( p =0.001). There is a significant positive correlation between LDL, total cholesterol, LDL-C, TG, and TC to HDL-C ratio, triglycerides, and TC/HDL-C ratio with HBA1c level. Meanwhile, a negative correlation was observed on HDL-C with the HBA1c level. Only TC/HDL-C ratio and LDL-C/HDL-C ratio parameters may be used as predictive models (AUC>0.7), with cutoff point, sensitivity, and specificity of 4.68 (77%; 52%) and 3.06 (98%; 56%) respectively. A risk analysis model shows that the LDL-C/HDL-C ratio parameter is the most influential risk factor in the occurrence of poor glycemic control (adjusted OR =38.76; 95% CI: 27.32-56.64; p <0.001). Conclusion: Lipid profiles (LDL-C) and lipid ratios (LDL-C/HDL-C and TC/HDL-C ratio) show potential markers that can be used in predicting glycemic control in patients with T2DM., Competing Interests: The authors declare there are no conflicts of interest regarding all elements in this study.

Purpose: Disturbed metabolism of cholesterol and triacylglycerols (TGs) carries increased risk for coronary artery calcification (CAC). However, the exact relationship between individual lipid species and CAC remains unclear. The aim of this study was to identify disturbances in lipid profiles involved in the calcification process, in an attempt to propose potential biomarker candidates. Patients and methods: We studied 70 patients at intermediate risk for coronary artery disease who had undergone coronary calcification assessment using computed tomography and Agatston coronary artery calcium score (CACS). Patients were divided into three groups: with no coronary calcification (NCC; CACS: 0; n=26), mild coronary calcification (MCC; CACS: 1-250; n=27), or severe coronary calcification (SCC; CACS: >250; n=17). Patients' serum samples were analyzed using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry in an untargeted lipidomics approach. Results: We identified 103 lipids within the glycerolipid, glycerophospholipid, sphingolipid, and sterol lipid classes. After false discovery rate correction, phosphatidylcholine (PC)(16:0/20:4) in higher levels and PC(18:2/18:2), PC(36:3), and phosphatidylethanolamine(20:0/18:2) in lower levels were identified as correlates with SCC compared to NCC. There were no significant differences in the levels of individual TGs between the three groups; however, clustering the lipid profiles showed a trend for higher levels of saturated and monounsaturated TGs in SCC compared to NCC. There was also a trend for lower TG(49:2), TG(51:1), TG(54:5), and TG(56:8) levels in SCC compared to MCC. Conclusion: In this study we investigated the lipidome of patients with coronary calcification. Our results suggest that the calcification process may be associated with dysfunction in autophagy. The lipidomic biomarkers revealed in this study may aid in better assessment of patients with subclinical coronary artery disease., Competing Interests: The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.

Poor adherence to statin therapy is linked to significantly increased risk of cardiovascular events and death. Unfortunately, adherence to statins is far from optimal. This is an alarming concern for patients prescribed potentially life-saving cholesterol-lowering medication, especially for those at high risk of cardiovascular events. Research on statin adherence has only recently garnered broader attention; hence, major reasons unique to adherence to statin therapy need to be identified as well as suggestions for countermeasures. An integrated approach to minimizing barriers and enhancing facilitation at the levels of the patient, provider, and health system can help address adherence issues. Health care professionals including physicians, pharmacists, and nurses have an obligation to improve patient adherence, as routine care. In order to achieve sustained results, a multifaceted approach is indispensable., Competing Interests: Disclosure Dr Zhen-Vin Lee has received honoraria from Aspen, Astra Zeneca, Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim, Merck Serono, Merck, Sharp & Dohme, and Pfizer. Mr Andre Lee underwent indirect patient care pharmacy training for 3 months at Pfizer, Singapore. Dr Sajita Setia and Dr Kannan Subramaniam are employees of Pfizer. Professor Lansberg has received consultancy and speaker honorarium payments from Pfizer and Sanofi. The authors report no other conflicts of interest in this work.

Background: Established cardiovascular risk factors are highly prevalent and contribute substantially to cardiovascular morbidity and mortality because they remain uncontrolled in many Canadians. Worksite-based cardiovascular risk factor screening and management represent a largely untapped strategy for optimizing risk factor control., Methods: In a 2-phase collaborative demonstration project between Alberta Health Services (AHS) and the Alberta Newsprint Company (ANC), ANC employees were offered cardiovascular risk factor screening and management. Screening was performed at the worksite by AHS nurses, who collected baseline history, performed automated blood pressure measurement and point-of-care testing for lipids and A1c, and calculated 10-year Framingham risk. Employees with a Framingham risk score of ≥10% and uncontrolled blood pressure, dyslipidemia, or smoking were offered 6 months of pharmacist case management to optimize their risk factor control., Results: In total, 87 of 190 (46%) employees volunteered to undergo cardiovascular risk factor screening. Mean age was 44.5±11.9 years, 73 (83.9%) were male, 14 (16.1%) had hypertension, 4 (4.6%) had diabetes, 12 (13.8%) were current smokers, and 9 (10%) had dyslipidemia. Of 36 employees with an estimated Framingham risk score of ≥10%, 21 (58%) agreed to receive case management and 15 (42%) attended baseline and 6-month follow-up case management visits. Statistically significant reductions in left arm systolic blood pressure (-8.0±12.4 mmHg; p =0.03) and triglyceride levels (-0.8±1.4 mmol/L; p =0.04) occurred following case management., Conclusion: These findings demonstrate the feasibility and usefulness of collaborative, worksite-based cardiovascular risk factor screening and management. Expansion of this type of partnership in a cost-effective manner is warranted., Competing Interests: Disclosure The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.

Background: High serum concentrations of small dense low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (sd-LDL-c) particles are associated with risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Their clinical application has been hindered as a consequence of the laborious current method used for their quantification., Objective: Optimize a simple and fast precipitation method to isolate sd-LDL particles and establish a reference interval in a Mediterranean population., Materials and Methods: Forty-five serum samples were collected, and sd-LDL particles were isolated using a modified heparin-Mg 2+ precipitation method. sd-LDL-c concentration was calculated by subtracting high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c) from the total cholesterol measured in the supernatant. This method was compared with the reference method (ultracentrifugation). Reference values were estimated according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute and The International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine recommendations. sd-LDL-c concentration was measured in serums from 79 subjects with no lipid metabolism abnormalities., Results: The Passing-Bablok regression equation is y = 1.52 (0.72 to 1.73) + 0.07 x (-0.1 to 0.13), demonstrating no significant statistical differences between the modified precipitation method and the ultracentrifugation reference method. Similarly, no differences were detected when considering only sd-LDL-c from dyslipidemic patients, since the modifications added to the precipitation method facilitated the proper sedimentation of triglycerides and other lipoproteins. The reference interval for sd-LDL-c concentration estimated in a Mediterranean population was 0.04-0.47 mmol/L., Conclusion: An optimization of the heparin-Mg 2+ precipitation method for sd-LDL particle isolation was performed, and reference intervals were established in a Spanish Mediterranean population. Measured values were equivalent to those obtained with the reference method, assuring its clinical application when tested in both normolipidemic and dyslipidemic subjects., Competing Interests: Disclosure The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.

Lipids disorder is the principal cause of atherosclerosis and may present with several forms, according to blood lipoprotein prevalence. One of the most common forms is combined dyslipidemia, characterized by high levels of triglycerides and low level of high-density lipoprotein. Single lipid-lowering drugs may have very selective effect on lipoproteins; hence, the need to use multiple therapy against dyslipidemia. However, the risk of toxicity is a concerning issue. In this review, the effect and safety of an approved combination therapy with simvastatin plus fenofibrate are described, with an analysis of pros and cons resulting from randomized multicenter trials, meta-analyses, animal models, and case reports as well., Competing Interests: Disclosure The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.

Background: Control of cardiovascular risk factor is important in secondary prevention of coronary artery disease (CAD) but it is unknown whether treatment targets are achieved in young patients. We aimed to examine the prevalence and control of risk factors in this subset of patients., Methods: We performed a cross-sectional, single-center study on patients with documented CAD before age 40. All patients treated between 2002 and 2014 were invited to participate at least 6 months after the last coronary intervention. We included 143 patients and recorded the family history of cardiovascular disease, physical activity level, smoking status, body mass index, waist circumference, blood pressure, cholesterol levels, metabolic status, and current medical therapy. Risk factor control and treatment targets were evaluated according to the shared guidelines from the European Society of Cardiology., Results: The most common insufficiently controlled risk factors were overweight (113 [79.0%]), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol above target (77 [57.9%]), low physical activity level (78 [54.6%]), hypertriglyceridemia (67 [46.9%]), and current smoking (53 [37.1%]). Almost one-half of the patients fulfilled the criteria of metabolic syndrome. The median (interquartile range) number of uncontrolled modifiable risk factors was 2 (2;4) and only seven (4.9%) patients fulfilled all modifiable health measure targets., Conclusion: Among the youngest patients with CAD, there remains a potential to improve the cardiovascular risk profile.

Introduction: Patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) are at higher risk of developing cardiovascular diseases, and assessment of their cardiac risk is important for preventive strategies., Purpose: The Ministry of Health of Sri Lanka has recommended World Health Organization/International Society of Hypertension (WHO/ISH) charts for cardiac risk assessment in individuals with T2DM. However, the most suitable cardiac risk assessment tool for Sri Lankans with T2DM has not been studied. This study was designed to evaluate the performance of two cardiac risk assessments tools; WHO/ISH charts and UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) risk engine., Methods: Cardiac risk assessments were done in 2,432 patients with T2DM attending a diabetes clinic in Southern Sri Lanka using the two risk assessment tools. Validity of two assessment tools was further assessed by their ability to recognize individuals with raised low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and raised diastolic blood pressure in a cohort of newly diagnosed T2DM patients (n=332)., Results: WHO/ISH charts identified 78.4% of subjects as low cardiac risk whereas the UKPDS risk engine categorized 52.3% as low cardiac risk (P<0.001). In the risk categories of 10%-<20%, the UKPDS risk engine identified higher proportions of patients (28%) compared to WHO/ISH charts (7%). Approximately 6% of subjects were classified as low cardiac risk (<10%) by WHO/ISH when UKPDS recognized them as cardiac risk of >20%. Agreement between the two tools was poor (κ value =0.144, P<0.01). Approximately 82% of individuals categorized as low cardiac risk by WHO/ISH had higher LDL cholesterol than the therapeutic target of 100 mg/dL., Conclusion: There is a significant discrepancy between the two assessment tools with WHO/ISH risk chart recognizing higher proportions of patients having low cardiac risk than the UKPDS risk engine. Risk assessment by both assessment tools demonstrated poor sensitivity in identifying those with treatable levels of LDL cholesterol and diastolic blood pressure.

Background: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) has been defined as a coronary artery disease risk equivalent. Therefore, the current guideline has been recommended for CKD patients to reach and maintain a low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) goal of less than 100 mg/dL. However, the data regarding the achievement of LDL-C goal in these patients is lacking., Objective: This study was conducted to evaluate the types of dyslipidemia affecting patients with CKD stages 3 and 4 and to determine whether these patients achieved LDL-C goal., Methods: We performed a retrospective chart review of patients with CKD stage 3 or 4 and dyslipidemia who were followed-up at Siriraj Hospital between October 2011 and September 2012., Results: In total, 150 patients with CKD stage 3 or 4 and dyslipidemia were recruited. The mean age was 72±10 years, and the body mass index was 25.6±4 kg/m(2); 60% had CKD stage 3 with an estimated glomerular filtration rate of 34±12 mL/min/1.73 m(2), and 54% had type 2 diabetes. The percentage of patients with hypercholesterolemia was 78%, hypertriglyceridemia 54%, and low high-density lipoprotein-C 36%. Of these, 52% had mixed hyperlipidemia. Statin treatment was prescribed to 87% of the patients, of which only 31.3% achieved the LDL-C goal according to the National Cholesterol Education Program and the European Society of Cardiology/European Atherosclerosis Society recommendations. Patients who did not achieve the LDL-C goal had a higher cholesterol level at diagnosis and higher prevalence of type 2 diabetes and stroke than those who achieved it., Conclusion: Two-thirds of CKD patients with hyperlipidemia had mixed hyperlipidemia. Despite the high frequency of statin treatment, only one-third of patients with CKD achieved the LDL-C goal. Thus, a developmental plan for the management of dyslipidemia in patients with CKD should be implemented to increase their achievement of the LDL-C goal.

High cardiovascular risk conditions are frequently associated with altered plasma lipoprotein profile, such as elevated low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and LDL cholesterol and decreased high-density lipoprotein. There is, however, accumulating evidence that specific subclasses of LDL may play an important role in cardiovascular disease development, and their relative concentration can be regarded as a more relevant risk factor. LDL particles undergo multiple modifications in plasma that can lead to the increase of their negative charge. The resulting electronegative LDL [LDL(-)] subfraction has been demonstrated to be especially atherogenic, and became a subject of numerous recent studies. In this review, we discuss the physicochemical properties of LDL(-), methods of its detection, atherogenic activity, and relevance of the LDL electronegativity index as a potential independent predictor of cardiovascular risk.

Background: The degree of glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) may alter lipid levels and may alter the efficacy of lipid-modifying agents., Objective: Evaluate the lipid-modifying efficacy of extended-release niacin/laropiprant (ERN/LRPT) in subgroups of patients with T2DM with better or poorer glycemic control., Methods: Post hoc analysis of clinical trial data from patients with T2DM who were randomized 4:3 to double-blind ERN/LRPT or placebo (n=796), examining the lipid-modifying effects of ERN/LRPT in patients with glycosylated hemoglobin or fasting plasma glucose levels above and below median baseline levels., Results: At Week 12 of treatment, ERN/LRPT significantly improved low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, and lipoprotein (a), compared with placebo, with equal efficacy in patients above or below median baseline glycemic control. Compared with placebo, over 36 weeks of treatment more patients treated with ERN/LRPT had worsening of their diabetes and required intensification of antihyperglycemic medication, irrespective of baseline glycemic control. Incidences of other adverse experiences were generally low in all treatment groups., Conclusion: The lipid-modifying effects of ERN/LRPT are independent of the degree of baseline glycemic control in patients with T2DM (NCT00485758).

Background: Hypertension and dyslipidemia are major risk factors for cardiovascular disease, accounting for the highest morbidity and mortality among the Bangladeshi population. The objective of this study was to determine the association between serum lipid profiles in hypertensive patients with normotensive control subjects in Bangladesh., Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out among 234 participants including 159 hypertensive patients and 75 normotensive controls from January to December 2012 in the National Centre for Control of Rheumatic Fever and Heart Disease in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Data were collected on sociodemographic factors, anthropometric measurements, blood pressure, and lipid profile including total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), low density lipoprotein (LDL), and high density lipoprotein (HDL)., Results: The mean (± standard deviation) systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure of the participants were 137.94±9.58 and 94.42±8.81, respectively, which were higher in the hypertensive patients (P<0.001). The serum levels of TC, TG, and LDL were higher while HDL levels were lower in hypertensive subjects compared to normotensives, which was statistically significant (P<0.001). Age, waist circumference, and body mass index showed significant association with hypertensive patients (P<0.001) but not with normotensives. The logistic regression analysis showed that hypertensive patients had 1.1 times higher TC and TG, 1.2 times higher LDL, and 1.1 times lower HDL than normotensives, which was statistically significant (P<0.05)., Conclusion: Hypertensive patients in Bangladesh have a close association with dyslipidemia and need measurement of blood pressure and lipid profile at regular intervals to prevent cardiovascular disease, stroke, and other comorbidities.

Background: Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death and disability worldwide. Therefore, as part of the Dyslipidemia International Study (DYSIS), we have analyzed the prevalence of lipid abnormalities and risk factors for dyslipidemia in statin-treated patients in Lebanon and Jordan., Methods: This cross-sectional, multicenter study enrolled 617 patients at 13 hospitals in Lebanon and Jordan. Patients were at least 45 years old and had been treated with statins for at least 3 months. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to determine patient characteristics contributing to dyslipidemia during statin therapy., Results: Our findings indicated that 55.9% of statin-treated patients (mean age 60.3 years, 47% female) in Lebanon and Jordan did not achieve goal levels for low-density lipoprotein cholesterol which were dependent on Systematic Coronary Risk Evaluation (SCORE) risk, and 70% of patients (76% men and 63.3% of women) were at very high cardiovascular risk. Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol goals were not achieved in 67.2% of those with very high cardiovascular risk. The most commonly prescribed statin was atorvastatin (44.6%), followed by simvastatin (27.7%), rosuvastatin (21.2%), fluvastatin (3.3%), pravastatin (3%), and lovastatin (0.2%). Approximately half of the population was treated with a statin dose potency of 4, equaling 40 mg of simvastatin. In Lebanon and Jordan, the strongest independent associations with low-density lipoprotein cholesterol not at goal were current smoking (odds ratio [OR] 1.96; 95% confidence [CI] 1.25-3.08), diabetes mellitus (OR 2.53; 95% CI 1.70-3.77), and ischemic heart disease (OR 2.26; 95% CI 1.45-3.53), while alcohol consumption was associated with reduced risk (OR 0.12; 95% CI 0.03-0.57)., Conclusion: We observed that many patients in Lebanon and Jordan experienced persistent dyslipidemia during statin treatment, supporting the notion that novel lipid-lowering strategies need to be developed. Also, social programs aimed at combating the extremely high rates of tobacco use and obesity in Lebanon and Jordan are critical for combating cardiovascular disease in these countries.

Background: Statins modify correlations between apolipoprotein B (apoB) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and apoB and non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (non-HDL-C); however, it is not known whether niacin-based therapies have similar effects., Objective: To evaluate the effects of extended-release niacin (ERN)/laropiprant (LRPT), simvastatin (SIMVA), and ERN/LRPT + SIMVA (pooled ERN/LRPT + SIMVA) on apoB:LDL-C and apoB:non-HDL-C correlations in dyslipidemic patients., Methods: This post-hoc analysis of a 12-week study evaluated the apoB:LDL-C and apoB:non-HDL-C correlations in dyslipidemic patients randomized equally to double-blind ERN/LRPT 1 g/20 mg, SIMVA 10, 20, or 40 mg, or ERN/LRPT 1 g/20 mg + SIMVA (10, 20, or 40 mg) once daily for 4 weeks. At week 5, doses were doubled in all groups except SIMVA 40 mg (unchanged) and ERN/LRPT 1 g/20 mg + SIMVA 40 mg (switched to ERN/LRPT 2 g/40 mg + SIMVA 40 mg). Simple linear regression analyses were used to calculate LDL-C and non-HDL-C levels corresponding to known apoB baseline values (ie, in untreated patients) and following treatment., Results: The apoB:LDL-C and apoB:non-HDL-C correlations were higher and the predicted LDL-C and non-HDL-C levels for a known apoB value were considerably lower following treatment with ERN/LRPT, SIMVA and ERN/LRPT + SIMVA compared with untreated patients at baseline., Conclusion: Greater dissociation of apoB, LDL-C, and non-HDL-C targets occur following treatment with ERN/LRPT, SIMVA, and ERN/LRPT + SIMVA in patients with dyslipidemia. The achievement of more aggressive LDL-C and non-HDL-C goals in patients receiving lipid-modifying therapy may further reduce coronary risk by normalizing apoB-containing atherogenic lipoproteins.

Background: Guidelines endorse statin therapy for lowering low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) to recommended levels, in patients with cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk, if needed, after lifestyle changes. Atorvastatin is a common statin with greater LDL-C lowering efficacy than most other statins; its availability in generic form will likely increase its use. This study assessed attainment of guideline-recommended LDL-C levels in high-risk CVD patients treated with atorvastatin monotherapy., Methods: Analyses of two retrospective US cohorts of patients who received a prescription for atorvastatin monotherapy between January 1, 2008 and December 31, 2010 (index date defined as first prescription date) in the GE Centricity Electronic Medical Record (EMR) (N=10,693) and Humana Medicare (N=16,798) databases. Eligible patients were ≥18 years, diagnosed with coronary heart disease or atherosclerotic vascular disease, with ≥1 LDL-C measurement between 3 months and 1 year postindex date, and continuously enrolled for 1 year prior to and following the index date., Results: Of the eligible patients, 21.8%, 29.6%, 29.9%, and 18.7% (GE Centricity EMR) and 25.4%, 32.9%, 27.8%, and 14.0% (Humana Medicare) received 10, 20, 40, and 80 mg doses of atorvastatin, respectively. The mean ± standard deviation (SD) follow-up LDL-C levels were 2.1±0.8 mmol/L (83±30 mg/dL) and 2.3±0.8 mmol/L (88±31 mg/dL) for the GE Centricity EMR and Humana Medicare cohorts, respectively. Regardless of dose, only 28.3%-34.8% of patients had LDL-C levels <1.8 mmol/L (<70 mg/dL), and 72.0%-78.0% achieved LDL-C <2.6 mmol/L (<100 mg/dL) in both cohorts. As many as 41% and 13% of patients had LDL-C levels ≥0.5 mmol/L (≥20 mg/dL) above LDL-C 1.8 mmol/L (70 mg/dL) and 2.6 mmol/L (100 mg/dL), respectively, in both cohorts; these percentages were generally similar across atorvastatin doses., Conclusion: In this real-world US setting, a large number of high-risk CVD patients did not attain guideline-recommended LDL-C levels with atorvastatin monotherapy. More than 65% of the patients had LDL-C levels >1.8 mmol/L (>70 mg/dL), and of these, 30%-40% had LDL-C levels ≥0.5 mmol/L (≥20 mg/dL) above this, regardless of dose. This suggests that more effective lipid-lowering strategies, such as statin uptitration, switching to a higher efficacy statin, and/or combination therapy, may be required to achieve optimal LDL-C lowering in high-risk patients.

Many studies have suggested that a significant risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) is low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C). Therefore, increasing HDL-C with therapeutic agents has been considered an attractive strategy. In the prestatin era, fibrates and niacin monotherapy, which cause modest increases in HDL-C, reduced ASCVD events. Since their introduction, statins have become the cornerstone of lipoprotein therapy, the benefits of which are primarily attributed to decrease in low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Findings from several randomized trials involving niacin or cholesteryl ester transfer protein inhibitors have challenged the concept that a quantitative elevation of plasma HDL-C will uniformly translate into ASCVD benefits. Consequently, the HDL, or more correctly, HDL-C hypothesis has become more controversial. There are no clear guidelines thus far for targeting HDL-C or HDL due to lack of solid outcomes data for HDL specific therapies. HDL-C levels are only one marker of HDL out of its several structural or functional properties. Novel approaches are ongoing in developing and assessing agents that closely mimic the structure of natural HDL or replicate its various functions, for example, reverse cholesterol transport, vasodilation, anti-inflammation, or inhibition of platelet aggregation. Potential new approaches like HDL infusions, delipidated HDL, liver X receptor agonists, Apo A-I upregulators, Apo A mimetics, and gene therapy are in early phase trials. This review will outline current therapies and describe future directions for HDL therapeutics.

Background: Few trials have compared different approaches to cardiovascular disease prevention among Pacific Asian (PA) populations. The Cluster Randomized Usual Care versus Caduet Investigation Assessing Long-term-risk (CRUCIAL) trial demonstrated that a proactive multifactorial intervention (PMI) approach (based on single-pill amlodipine/atorvastatin) resulted in a greater reduction in calculated Framingham 10-year coronary heart disease (CHD) risk compared with usual care (UC) among hypertensive patients with additional risk factors. One-third of CRUCIAL patients resided in the PA region. The aim of this subanalysis was to compare two approaches to cardiovascular risk factor management (PMI versus UC) among patients residing in PA and non-PA regions., Methods: This subanalysis of the CRUCIAL trial compared treatment-related changes in calculated CHD risk among patients residing in PA and non-PA regions. Sensitivity analyses were conducted among men and women and those with and without diabetes., Results: Overall, 448 patients (31.6%) resided in the PA region and 969 patients (68.4%) resided in non-PA regions. The PMI approach was more effective in reducing calculated CHD risk versus UC in both PA (-37.1% versus -3.5%; P<0.001) and non-PA regions (-31.1% versus -4.2%; P<0.001); region interaction P=0.131. PA patients had slightly greater reductions in total cholesterol compared with non-PA patients. PA patients without diabetes had slightly greater reductions in CHD risk compared with non-PA patients. Treatment effects were similar in men and women and those with diabetes., Conclusion: The PMI approach was more effective in reducing calculated Framingham 10-year CHD risk compared with UC among men and women with and without diabetes residing in the PA and non-PA region.

Residual risk, the ongoing appreciable risk of major cardiovascular events (MCVE) in statin-treated patients who have achieved evidence-based lipid goals, remains a concern among cardiologists. Factors that contribute to this continuing risk are atherogenic non-low-density lipoprotein (LDL) particles and atherogenic processes unrelated to LDL cholesterol, including other risk factors, the inherent properties of statin drugs, and patient characteristics, ie, genetics and behaviors. In addition, providers, health care systems, the community, public policies, and the environment play a role. Major statin studies suggest an average 28% reduction in LDL cholesterol and a 31% reduction in relative risk, leaving a residual risk of about 69%. Incomplete reductions in risk, and failure to improve conditions that create risk, may result in ongoing progression of atherosclerosis, with new and recurring lesions in original and distant culprit sites, remodeling, arrhythmias, rehospitalizations, invasive procedures, and terminal disability. As a result, identification of additional agents to reduce residual risk, particularly administered together with statin drugs, has been an ongoing quest. The current model of atherosclerosis involves many steps during which disease may progress independently of guideline-defined elevations in LDL cholesterol. Differences in genetic responsiveness to statin therapy, differences in ability of the endothelium to regenerate and repair, and differences in susceptibility to nonlipid risk factors, such as tobacco smoking, hypertension, and molecular changes associated with obesity and diabetes, may all create residual risk. A large number of inflammatory and metabolic processes may also provide eventual therapeutic targets to lower residual risk. Classically, epidemiologic and other evidence suggested that raising high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol would be cardioprotective. When LDL cholesterol is aggressively lowered to targets, low HDL cholesterol levels are still inversely related to MCVE. The efflux capacity, or ability to relocate cholesterol out of macrophages, is believed to be a major antiatherogenic mechanism responsible for reduction in MCVE mediated in part by healthy HDL. HDL cholesterol is a complex molecule with antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, anti-thrombotic, antiplatelet, and vasodilatory properties, among which is protection of LDL from oxidation. HDL-associated paraoxonase-1 has a major effect on endothelial function. Further, HDL promotes endothelial repair and progenitor cell health, and supports production of nitric oxide. HDL from patients with cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and autoimmune disease may fail to protect or even become proinflammatory or pro-oxidant. Mendelian randomization and other clinical studies in which raising HDL cholesterol has not been beneficial suggest that high plasma levels do not necessarily reduce cardiovascular risk. These data, coupled with extensive preclinical information about the functional heterogeneity of HDL, challenge the "HDL hypothesis", ie, raising HDL cholesterol per se will reduce MCVE. After the equivocal AIM-HIGH (Atherothrombosis Intervention in Metabolic Syndrome With Low HDL/High Triglycerides: Impact on Global Health Outcomes) study and withdrawal of two major cholesteryl ester transfer protein compounds, one for off-target adverse effects and the other for lack of efficacy, development continues for two other agents, ie, anacetrapib and evacetrapib, both of which lower LDL cholesterol substantially. The negative but controversial HPS2-THRIVE (the Heart Protection Study 2-Treatment of HDL to Reduce the Incidence of Vascular Events) trial casts further doubt on the HDL cholesterol hypothesis. The growing impression that HDL functionality, rather than abundance, is clinically important is supported by experimental evidence highlighting the conditional pleiotropic actions of HDL. Non-HDL cholesterol reflects the cholesterol in all atherogenic particles containing apolipoprotein B, and has outperformed LDL cholesterol as a lipid marker of cardiovascular risk and future mortality. In addition to including a measure of residual risk, the advantages of using non-HDL cholesterol as a primary lipid target are now compelling. Reinterpretation of data from the Treating to New Targets study suggests that better control of smoking, body weight, hypertension, and diabetes will help lower residual risk. Although much improved, control of risk factors other than LDL cholesterol currently remains inadequate due to shortfalls in compliance with guidelines and poor patient adherence. More efficient and greater use of proven simple therapies, such as aspirin, beta-blockers, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers, combined with statin therapy, may be more fruitful in improving outcomes than using other complex therapies. Comprehensive, intensive, multimechanistic, global, and national programs using primordial, primary, and secondary prevention to lower the total level of cardiovascular risk are necessary.

Background: Many high-risk coronary heart disease (CHD) patients on statin monotherapy do not achieve guideline-recommended low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) goals, and combination lipid-lowering therapy may be considered for these individuals. The effect of adding ezetimibe to simvastatin, atorvastatin, or rosuvastatin therapy versus titrating these statins on LDL-C changes and goal attainment in CHD or CHD risk-equivalent patients was assessed in a large, managed-care database in the US., Methods: Eligible patients (n=17,830), initially on statin monotherapy who were ≥18 years with baseline and follow-up LDL-C values, no concomitant use of other lipid-lowering therapy, and on lipid-lowering therapy for ≥42 days, were identified between November 1, 2002 and September 30, 2009. The percent change from baseline in LDL-C levels and the odds ratios for attainment of LDL-C<1.8 and <2.6 mmol/L (70 and 100 mg/dL) were estimated using an analysis of covariance and logistic regression, respectively, adjusted for various baseline factors., Results: LDL-C reductions from baseline and goal attainment improved substantially in patients treated with ezetimibe added onto simvastatin, atorvastatin, or rosuvastatin therapy (n=2,312) versus those (n=13,053) who titrated these statins. In multivariable models, percent change from baseline in LDL-C was -13.1% to -14.8% greater for those who added ezetimibe onto simvastatin, atorvastatin, or rosuvastatin versus those who titrated. The odds of attaining LDL-C<1.8 and <2.6 mmol/L (70 and 100 mg/dL) increased by 2.6-3.2-fold and 2.5-3.1-fold, respectively, in patients who added ezetimibe onto simvastatin, atorvastatin, or rosuvastatin versus titrating statins., Conclusion: CHD/CHD risk-equivalent patients in a large US managed-care database, who added ezetimibe onto simvastatin, atorvastatin, or rosuvastatin, had greater LDL-C reductions and goal attainment than those who uptitrated these statin therapies. Our study suggests that high-risk CHD patients in need of more intensive LDL-C lowering therapy may benefit by adding ezetimibe onto statin therapy.

Background: Arterial hypertension and dyslipidemia are modifiable cardiovascular risk factors. The multiplicative effect of these risk factors may worsen the atherogenic index of an individual. The objective of this study was to determine the pattern and prevalence of dyslipidemia in newly presenting Nigerians with arterial hypertension, as well as determine some of its correlates., Methods: This cross-sectional study compared 115 newly presenting, age- and sex-matched individuals with arterial hypertension with 115 normotensive individuals. Fasting lipids, total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and fasting plasma glucose were estimated., Results: Patients with arterial hypertension had higher body mass index (t=7.64; P=0.000), TC (t=2.95; P=0.006), and HDL-C (t=-5.18; P=0.000). The most common dyslipidemia was low HDL-C, found in both the hypertensive (44.3%) and normotensive (20.9%) patients. The prevalence of dyslipidemia in hypertensives and controls was 64% and 39%, respectively. In hypertensive patients, TC correlated positively to diastolic blood pressure (r=0.218; P=0.0019). Other positive correlates include LDL-C and age (r=0.217; P=0.020) and fasting plasma glucose (r=0.202; P=0.030) and body mass index (r=0.209; P=0.025). Among normotensive controls, TC correlated positively with LDL-C (r=0.63; P=0.000) but correlated negatively with tri glycerides (r=-0.30; P=0.001)., Conclusion: Lipid abnormalities are common in newly presenting Nigerians with arterial hypertension. Screening of these risk factors, promotion of healthy lifestyle, and the institution of therapy is desirable to reduce their multiplicative effects.

Background: Triglyceride levels were found to be independently predictive of the development of primary coronary heart disease in epidemiologic studies. The objective of this study was to determine whether triglyceride levels were predictive of cardiovascular events in randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of lipid-modifying drugs., Methods: We performed a systematic review and meta-regression analysis of 40 RCTs of lipid-modifying drugs with cardiovascular events as an outcome. The log of the rate ratio of cardiovascular events (eg, coronary death or myocardial infarction) was plotted against the proportional difference between treatment and control groups in triglyceride and other lipid levels (high density lipoprotein cholesterol [HDL-C], low density lipoprotein cholesterol [LDL-C], and total cholesterol) for all trials and for trials of primary and secondary prevention populations. Linear regression was used to determine the statistical significance of the relationship between lipid values and cardiovascular events., Results: The proportional difference in triglyceride levels was predictive of cardiovascular events in all trials (P=0.005 for the slope of the regression line; N=40) and in primary prevention trials (P=0.010; N=11), but not in secondary prevention trials (P=0.114; N=25). The proportional difference in HDL-C was not predictive of cardiovascular events in all trials (P=0.822; N=40), or in trials of primary (P=0.223; N=11) or secondary (P=0.487; N=25) prevention. LDL-C levels were predictive of cardiovascular events in both primary (P=0.002; N=11) and secondary (P<0.001; N=25) populations., Conclusions: Changes in triglyceride levels were predictive of cardiovascular events in RCTs. This relationship was significant in primary prevention populations but not in secondary prevention populations.

Purpose: Chronic hemodialysis patients experience accelerated atherosclerosis contributed to by dyslipidemia, inflammation, and an impaired antioxidant system. Vitamin E tocotrienols possess anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. However, the impact of dietary intervention with Vitamin E tocotrienols is unknown in this population., Patients and Methods: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel trial was conducted in 81 patients undergoing chronic hemodialysis. Subjects were provided daily with capsules containing either vitamin E tocotrienol-rich fraction (TRF) (180 mg tocotrienols, 40 mg tocopherols) or placebo (0.48 mg tocotrienols, 0.88 mg tocopherols). Endpoints included measurements of inflammatory markers (C-reactive protein and interleukin 6), oxidative status (total antioxidant power and malondialdehyde), lipid profiles (plasma total cholesterol, triacylglycerols, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol), as well as cholesteryl-ester transfer protein activity and apolipoprotein A1., Results: TRF supplementation did not impact any nutritional, inflammatory, or oxidative status biomarkers over time when compared with the baseline within the group (one-way repeated measures analysis of variance) or when compared with the placebo group at a particular time point (independent t-test). However, the TRF supplemented group showed improvement in lipid profiles after 12 and 16 weeks of intervention when compared with placebo at the respective time points. Normalized plasma triacylglycerols (cf baseline) in the TRF group were reduced by 33 mg/dL (P=0.032) and 36 mg/dL (P=0.072) after 12 and 16 weeks of intervention but no significant improvement was seen in the placebo group. Similarly, normalized plasma high-density lipoprotein cholesterol was higher (P<0.05) in the TRF group as compared with placebo at both week 12 and week 16. The changes in the TRF group at week 12 and week 16 were associated with higher plasma apolipoprotein A1 concentration (P<0.02) and lower cholesteryl-ester transfer protein activity (P<0.001)., Conclusion: TRF supplementation improved lipid profiles in this study of maintenance hemodialysis patients. A multi-centered trial is warranted to confirm these observations.

The risk of death due to heart disease and stroke is up to four times higher in individuals with diabetes compared to individuals without diabetes. Most guidelines that address treatment of dyslipidemia in patients with diabetes consider diabetes a cardiovascular disease (CVD) "risk equivalent" and recommend intensive treatment of dyslipidemia for the purpose of CVD prevention. Statins (3-hydroxy 3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase [HMG-CoA reductase] inhibitors) are first-line agents in achieving lipid goals as an adjunct to diet and exercise and should be used in most patients. In addition to lipid management and blood pressure control, glycemic control is a basic component in the management of diabetes. Glycemic control is achieved by combining diabetes self-management education, diet and exercise, and, where required, antihyperglycemic agents (OHAs). Persistence and adherence to therapy are critical in achieving recommended treatment goals. However, overall compliance with concomitantly prescribed OHAs and statins is low in patients with type 2 diabetes. Fixed-dose combination (FDC) therapies have been shown to improve adherence by reducing pill burden, the complexity of treatment regimen, and, potentially, cost. Based on the available evidence regarding the pharmacokinetics and the efficacy and safety profiles of each component drug, the sitagliptin/simvastatin FDC may provide a rational and well-tolerated approach to achieving better adherence to multiple-drug therapy and improved lipid lowering and glycemic control, with consequent reduction in cardiovascular risk, diabetic microvascular disease, and mortality in diabetic patients for whom treatment with both compounds is appropriate.

Nonobese children age 10.4 +/- 1.1 years diagnosed with dyslipidemia (n = 51) were compared to normal children age 10.8 +/- 1.1 years (n = 38). Affected individuals had increased total cholesterol: 223 +/- 23 vs 152 +/- 17 mg/dl, p < 0.001; and decreased high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol: 41.9 +/- 4.1 vs 57.6 +/- 5.7 mg/dl, p < 0.001 and triglycerides: 90.8 +/- 40.5 vs 65.7 +/- 25.0 mg/dl, p < 0.002. Fasting glucose was also significantly elevated (p < 0.02). All other parameters, including blood pressure, were not statistically different between groups. The concentration of C-reactive protein was not statistically different between groups. Analysis of medical records showed that this anomaly may be related to this group (as well as the control group) performing regular, daily exercise. This activity was quantified via a self administered questionnaire, and found to be statistically identical in controls and dyslipidemic individuals. Exercise is associated with the release of antiinflammatory cytokines, therefore our results support the contention that it is a significant factor in promoting health conditions from an early stage in life.

Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol concentration has been the prime index of cardiovascular disease risk and the main target for therapy. However, several lipoprotein ratios or "atherogenic indices" have been defined in an attempt to optimize the predictive capacity of the lipid profile. In this review, we summarize their pathophysiological aspects, and highlight the rationale for using these lipoprotein ratios as cardiovascular risk factors in clinical practice, specifying their cut-off risk levels and a target for lipid-lowering therapy. Total/high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and LDL/HDL cholesterol ratios are risk indicators with greater predictive value than isolated parameters used independently, particularly LDL. Future recommendations regarding the diagnosis and treatment of dyslipidemia, including instruments for calculating cardiovascular risk or action guidelines, should include the lipoprotein ratios with greater predictive power which, in view of the evidence-based results, are none other than those which include HDL cholesterol.