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The Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) system in Singapore has been in operations since 1998 and has seen consistent levels of success in managing traffic in this city-state with high vehicle usage and limited land space. With the ERP rates reviewed quarterly and adjusted for the relevant 30-min periods based on speeds criteria, the volume of data collected through the years has enabled a closer look at how motorists behave with rate increases or decreases, and how these travel behaviors compare with the established consumer behavior phenomenon of loss aversions and the theory of diminished sensitivity. This paper studied 33 rate changes across 6 expressway ERP pricing gantries between the years of 2012 and 2018, and derived precise observations of travel behavior changes. The data showed that frequent car drivers tend to make more deliberate choices on whether to leave or stay on their routes. Frequent car drivers are defined as those who drive past that gantry at least 60% of the weekdays in that month (proportionally around 3 weekdays per week). We also affirmed that loss aversion theory is exhibited in road pricing through the higher demand elasticities observed from $1 rate increases as compared to the $1 rate reductions. Interestingly however, the theory of diminishing sensitivity did not seem to drive traveler's decisions here. Instead, Singapore drivers appeared to have assessed their trip decisions based on two reference points during rate increases; a primary reference point of $2 and a reasonable reference point of $5. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Congestion and local air pollution continue to be a serious problem in many cities around the world, partly because of an increasing and ageing car fleet. Unfortunately, the use of pricing schemes for handling these externalities, such as congestion and pollution charges, still face much resistance. To cope with it, Carlos F. Daganzo advanced an ingenious hybrid scheme that supposedly leaves everybody better off: driving restrictions with toll exemptions. We extend Daganzo's idea to include vintage exemptions in an effort to also control for the pollution externality. We then test for its Pareto-improving property using Santiago as a case study. We find the latter not to hold in that low-income drivers are strictly worse off: the gain from faster car travel in days of no restriction is not enough to compensate the loss from switching to public transport in days of restriction. To make all individuals better off, the entire toll collection ought to be recycled back into the public transport system, lowering its fares and improving its quality. If so, the most ambitious hybrid restriction format —a 5-day-a-week restriction with vintage thresholds during fall and winter— reports per-year net benefits of around 1.2 billion dollars (or 0.5% of the country's GDP), 58% of which comes from lighter traffic and the remaining 42% from cleaner air. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We revealed who are more likely to vote against a low emission charging zone (LECZ). • Adoption of HEVs and attitudes to the scheme were tested with the LECZ acceptability. • Around two-thirds of the participants voted against the LECZ scheme. • Affordable price and the maintenance of HEVs are negatively related to voting against. • Distrust in government was noticeably associated with the LECZ rejection. Based on data derived from a self-reported questionnaire survey (n = 595), the current study was carried out to (a) determine the extent to which residents support a Low Emission Charging Zone (LECZ) via a hypothetical referendum voting, (b) examine the relationship between intention to adopt Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (HEVs) by voting for/against LECZ through employing the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), and (c) investigate public attitudes towards the proposed system. The results indicated that around two-thirds of the participants voted against the LECZ scheme, and that latent psychological factors had a stronger impact on voting against the LECZ than observed variables. The results also revealed that people would be more likely to adopt and less likely to oppose the LECZ if the price, maintenance, and repair of HEVs were affordable. Regarding public attitudes towards the proposed system, distrust in government concerning the use of LECZ-derived revenues was noticeably related to the LECZ rejection. In the light of the findings, some policy and planning implications are recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Between 32% and 52% of the public supports tradable peak credits (TPC). • Support increases when the scheme is simpler and when credits are equally distributed. • Attitudes and some socio-economic variables are strongly related to support. Congestion charging is generally regarded as an effective tool to manage the ongoing growth in road use and to abate congestion. However, public support is typically very low and therefore very few charging schemes have been implemented. The concept of tradable peak credits (TPC), which is based on the cap-and-trade principle, has characteristics that are believed to lead to more public support. First, a TPC system is revenue-neutral since the money circulates within the user group. Also, the expected effectiveness, and thereby support, may be higher because, in a TPC system, the operator has more control over the inflow of cars due to the firm cap. Lastly, the allocation of free credits provides the opportunity to address equity issues. This paper aims to quantify the levels of support for TPC among the public and to explore what the influence of scheme design, personal characteristics and attitudes is on these levels of support. To that end, a stated choice experiment has been conducted in which respondents were asked whether they would vote for the implementation of different TPC schemes. The discrete choice model shows that 32%, and up to a small majority of 52%, would support different TPC schemes. Most people, however, like or dislike TPC regardless of the scheme design. It is attitudes, and to a limited extent also socio-demographics, that relate to someone's level of support, rather than the scheme characteristics. Support is especially higher among people who find TPC fair and effective, who live outside the borders of the municipality and are lower educated. Although the results indicate that a small majority would support a TPC scheme, directions for future research are given to supplement this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The toll design problem (TDP) provides a quantitative approach to the design of road pricing schemes. Its practical use, however, can be computationally challenging if the formulated TDP requires time-consuming computer models to evaluate candidate designs, especially if such designs must account for multiple objectives. For TDPs to be of practical relevance to the real-world planning of sustainable transportation networks, efficient TDP solution heuristics must be developed. To this end, two surrogate-based solution heuristics for multi-objective TDPs are proposed in this paper. Surrogate-based optimization uses simple approximations to computationally expensive models in order to accelerate the discovery of good solutions. The general search strategy of the proposed heuristics is as follows. In each iteration of the heuristics, a pool of candidate pricing schemes with unique sets of tolling locations and associated tolling levels is generated. From this pool of designs, the heuristics use the surrogate models to screen for solutions that are expected to be nondominated and that meet a specified selection criterion. Then, these promising designs are evaluated by the computationally expensive models, and the outputs obtained from these evaluations are used to update the surrogate models. Both heuristics repeat this general process until a maximum number of iterations are completed, at which point the best TDP solutions are returned. In addition to the solution heuristics, this paper presents a transportation network paradox that highlights how transportation network interventions intended to reduce traffic emissions could have unintended effects on a population's exposure to pollutants. The paradox also is used to illustrate the practical complexity of accounting for environmental inequality objectives, as well as the relevance of multi-objective analysis approaches to transportation planning. Formulations of multi-objective TDPs that consider both travel and pollutant exposure-related objectives are also presented, including the objectives of reducing human intake of vehicle-generated air pollutants and of minimizing environmental inequality. The Sioux Falls and Chicago Sketch networks were used in tests that examined the relative performance of the heuristics, as well as the characteristics of pricing configurations obtained under different budget constraints. Among other results, the tests show that a pricing configuration could decrease total pollutant intake and environmental inequality, while at the same time producing an increase in pollutant concentrations in a significant number of pollutant receptor points. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We investigated the extent to which citizens break the rule of an active congestion charging scheme. • Latent attitudinal and observed variables were simultaneously tested via an HCM-analysis. • Lack of trust in government and a lower perceived effectiveness had the strongest influences. • Using non-governmental media, the issue of complexity and lack of information need to be well-addressed. • As for long-term policy, entrusting management system to a private system and launching environmental campaigns are plausible solutions. Although previous studies have explored predictors of Congestion Charging (CC) acceptability and acceptance, there is no study investigating the rule-breaking behaviour towards a CC scheme. The current study thus examined the effects of a wide range of attitudinal factors as well as demographic, socioeconomic, built environment and travel-related characteristics on rule-breaking/following behaviour towards an ongoing CC scheme. Our major contribution to the state of the art is threefold: (a) we reveal the extent to which citizens break the rule of an active scheme and illegally drive through the CC area, (b) we simultaneously test the relative roles of several latent attitudinal and observed variables in the type of rule-breaking/following conduct in an integrated framework through developing a hybrid choice model, and (c) we empirically investigate how and to what extent the level of legitimacy of an active CC scheme appears in a city in the Middle East context, where politicians have neglected the direct participation of public via referendum voting in the policy process behind the introduction of the CC. A sample of car users was recruited during February and March 2019 in Tehran. A cross-sectional design using a self-report questionnaire survey was conducted. Out of 622 citizens participated in this study, 595 valid observations were used for analysis. Our findings showed significant difference between predictors for those frequently (mono-rule breakers) broke and those who rarely or occasionally (multi rule-breakers) broke the rule of CC. The finding also revealed that latent attitudinal factors could have greater impacts on rule-breaking behaviour than observed variables. Lack of trust in government concerning final use of CC revenues and a lower perceived effectiveness of the CC had the strongest influence on the probability of violating the CC rule. We suggested both short and long-term policies to deal with the issues of legitimacy and survival of the CC scheme. With regard to short-term policy, using media and social networks, the issue of complexity and lack of information about the charging system need to be well-addressed. Considering long-term policy, entrusting management system from governmental authorities to a private system as well as launching environmental campaigns could increase the public trust and effectiveness of the CC scheme, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This overview article proposes a revised approach to improve the urban realm, against the backdrop of new models for delivering transport services as digitalisation, collaborative consumption and autonomous technologies take hold. We propose the concept of modal efficiency illustrated through a conceptual framework situating both existing and emerging modes of transport around spatial and temporal dimensions. This framework helps us evaluate how the push towards smaller and more flexible transport services in questionable settings can have significant and adverse effects on road capacity, increasing congestion and in the longer term impacting urban form. We propose linking urban land use characteristics to travel price and modal efficiency to improve the broader transport system and guide the sustainable development of our cities. Mobility as a service (MaaS) based on shared mobility and modal integration constitutes a major opportunity to deliver on these ideals, if organised appropriately. Widely diverging service delivery models for MaaS are introduced, including commercially-motivated models (which may exacerbate efficiency issues), and systems which incorporate an institutional overlay. We propose consideration of a government-contracted model for MaaS, where road pricing is incorporated as an input into package price, defined by time of day, geography and modal efficiency. In amidst the hype of new mobility technologies and services, a critical assessment of the realm of possibilities can better inform government policy and ensure that digital disruption occurs to our advantage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The implementation of electronic toll collection (ETC) over freeways not only enables nonstop traffic flows through toll collection zones but also facilitates more flexible schemes for road pricing, such as distance-based and time-based schemes, as both the on-ramp and off-ramp time stamps of a trip can be detected. Based on such an ETC environment, this study develops a road pricing model which considers the perspectives of road users, the government, and the ETC agent, seeking to attain greener transportation by leveraging the external costs related to environmental impact and accident potential. Thereupon, a Green Safety Indicator (GSI) is proposed to comprehensively account for the service level of freeway traffic. The optimal solution for the benefits generated from three scenarios are determined against GSI-based equilibria, which can maintain the revenue for the government, offer the ETC agent higher profits, and allow road users off-peak discounts, thereby promoting a tripartite win–win situation among stakeholders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to develop a road pricing policy that is effective in reducing vehicle emissions, this paper explores the relationship between road pricing, the urban built environment, and vehicle emissions. Existing studies generally tend to choose a city or an entire region as the research object. For this reason, these kinds of studies can neither analyze the differences in the vehicle emission effects of road charging on regions with different built environment attributes, nor distinguish how different built environment attributes affect the vehicle emission effects of road user charging. To fill in the research gap, this paper focuses on the influences of road charging on the vehicle emissions of regions with different built environment characteristics. In order to achieve the above mentioned goal, this paper first applies a method which combines the land use and transport interaction model with a vehicle emission model to simulate the automobile emissions under different road pricing schemes. Then, using multiple regression analysis, this paper establishes the association between the built environment attributes and the vehicle emissions under different road charging levels. Additionally, using factor analysis and cluster analysis, this research further distinguishes the vehicle emission effects of road pricing based on attributes of the built environment. The results confirmed that road pricing affects vehicle emissions in different regions differently. More importantly, not every region will experience decreases in vehicle emissions after the implementation of a road charging policy. The presence of retail amenities, good street design, and public transportation, the more significant the effect of road pricing in reducing vehicle emissions. Furthermore, a healthy jobs-housing balance is also conducive to the decline of regional automobile emissions as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Road pricing is an important travel demand management strategy and its effects on transportation system has been widely investigated. Toll elasticity has been derived in the existing literature to characterize its effect on travel demand all around the world. However, very few studies have comprehensively analyzed the effect of tolls on freight transportation, which plays an increasingly important role in social and economic activities. To enrich the understanding of freight travel demand, this study conducted a stated preference survey on freight carriers who routinely use toll facilities. A regression model about freight carriers’ stated reduction in vehicle miles traveled (VMT) on toll roads is then developed. The elasticity value is derived and compared with values in existing literature. Based on the calibrated model, the VMT change in response to hypothetical toll price increases is simulated for New York State. The simulation results reveal important insights that will help policy makers design ideal freight demand management strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Consider a competitive highway/transit transportation system in which travelers either drive on the bottleneck-constrained highway or take scheduled trains from home to the workplace in the morning peak hours. This paper explores the impact of bottleneck capacity expansion on transit operating schemes (fleet size and fare) and travelers’ departure time and mode choices. Due to the potential occurrence of the Downs-Thomson (D-T) Paradox after highway capacity expansion, the paper investigates whether the D-T Paradox can be circumvented by implementing transit subsidy policies. The effects of different transit subsidy schemes are explored: subsidizing the transit company (cost subsidy) or the passengers (passenger subsidy) with the financial support from either government funding or road pricing revenue. For each combination of subsidy method and financial sourcing, the condition for overcoming the D-T Paradox is established. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper has two objectives: (i) to introduce a new approach in order to gain widespread support for road pricing; and (ii) to develop a detailed social welfare analysis for road pricing schemes. We first describe our novel approach that stimulates public support for road pricing, which we refer to as an investment public–private partnership, or IP3. This approach returns a significant portion of the economic value created by road pricing back to the citizens who own the newly priced facility. We then present a social welfare framework that estimates the benefits and costs of using the IP3 approach on an urban transportation network. A P3 project’s impact on overall social welfare provides a more comprehensive evaluation criterion than the often-used Value for Money (VfM) analysis. Apart from several theoretical studies, a detailed social welfare analysis that includes all major P3 project stakeholders is absent from the literature. We use Fresno, California as our case study in order to conduct a welfare analysis on IP3s. Our results show that system-optimal tolling favors average users, but that government—and consequently taxpayers—should pay for costly tolling systems (negative profits). In contrast, unlimited profit-maximizing tolls raise substantial profits for government, for the infrastructure’s citizen-owners, and for the private sector, but the average user is worse off. From a social-welfare perspective, one should search for a Pareto improvement under which all major stakeholders are better off. Our estimates indicate that a mixed public and private tolling scheme offers such an improvement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hong Kong drivers face daily congestion, especially at the Cross Harbor Tunnel (CHT) whose tolls are substantially lower than those of the drivers’ other two tunnel options: the Eastern Harbor Crossing (EHC) and the Western Harbor Crossing (WHC). In 2013, the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) Government issued a consultation paper, seeking public comments on three toll-change proposals that would raise the CHT’s tolls and lower the EHC’s tolls. The WHC’s tolls would remain unchanged due to its congested connecting roads. Using monthly crossing data available from the HKSAR’s Transport Department for 2000–2012, this paper uses a Generalized Leontief demand system to document that the usage patterns of the three tunnels is price-responsive. Hence, we conclude that the proposed toll changes are likely to be effective in transportation demand management, by shifting a portion of the CHT’s usage to the EHC and WHC, thereby relieving the CHT’s congestion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the changes in the media coverage of two road pricing schemes proposed in the Netherlands in the period 1998–2010, as well as the link between the media coverage and the policy debate. Both pricing proposals were debated for several years and neither was introduced. Our findings show that space allocation for type of overall tone (e.g. negative or positive towards a pricing proposal) and the range of issues and policy actors in the media coverage were very different for the two proposals, and for each proposal fluctuated greatly over time. Our analysis suggests that such a variation in the media coverage was a reflection of changes in the content of the policy debate (e.g. caused by the specific design features of pricing proposal under discussion, the different policy actors engaged in the debate and their messages about the proposal). This indicates that policymakers can influence the media coverage of road pricing policies to some extent by managing the policy debate. Our findings also show not only that changes in the content of the policy debate were reflected in the media coverage, but also that the media coverage influenced the policy debate: the statements or actions of policy actors received media coverage, which then in turn stimulated the policy debate. However, the influence of media on the policy debate was rather indirect, in that policy actors mostly reacted to the messages from other policy actors reported in the media and to a lesser extent to the media coverage itself. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Negative externalities often surface after policies are implemented. This paper analyses how two “hard” Travel Demand Management (TDM) policies implemented in Singapore to target vehicle ownership and road usage may contribute to a negative externality namely excessive mileage accumulation. This has implications on resource depletion such as petrol wastage, higher CO 2 emission and losses in time and productivity. Vehicle ownership in Singapore is managed firstly via the requirement to bid for a Certificate of Entitlement (COE) which entitles the usage of local roads and secondly via the payment of an Additional Registration Fee (ARF) which is refundable between 75% and 50% to incentivise the de-registration of a vehicle before it is 10 years old. Such deregistered vehicles may also be eligible for a COE refund between 0% and 80% depending on age. The COE and ARF costs are significant as they typically account for more than half the purchase price of a vehicle. Furthermore, road usage is subject to Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) fees on busy segments. A sample of over 8700 used cars is analysed to infer the effects of the non-refundable (or “sunk”) and the “variable” portions of the combined cost of COE and ARF as well as the number of ERP gantries on mileage over and above traditional factors such as petrol price and engine size. The findings suggest tweaks to the TDM policies to reduce mileage and its negative implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we investigate the effects of the temporal variation of pollution dispersion, traffic flows and vehicular emissions on pollution concentration and illustrate the need for temporally differentiated road pricing through an application to the case of the congestion charge in Stockholm, Sweden. By accounting explicitly for the role of pollution dispersion on optimal road pricing, we allow for a more comprehensive view of the economy–ecology interactions at stake, showing that price differentiation is an optimal response to the physical environment. Most congestion charges in place incorporate price bands to mitigate congestion. Our analysis indicates that, to ensure compliance with air quality standards, such price variations should also be a response to limited pollution dispersion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies the effects of road pricing on land use under different development scenarios (business as usual scenario and transit oriented development scenario) by a quantitative method, which combines the integrated land use and transport interaction model (TRANUS model) with the scenario-planning techniques. Moreover, in order to further analyze the differences of the land use effects of road pricing on traffic analysis zones (TAZs) with different urban form attributes, a quantitative classification method combining factor analysis and cluster analysis is then used to quantitatively classify TAZs. The results demonstrate that the effects of road pricing on the land use of a specific region depend on the urban form attributes of the region. The higher the densities of employments and population, and better street design (high densities of street and intersections) and public transportation condition, the less the region is negatively affected by road pricing, and vice versa. More importantly, rail transit can alleviate the negative impact of road pricing on commercial development and population concentration of the region. Therefore, before introducing a road pricing policy, it is necessary to develop public transport system, especially rail transit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Motorcycles play an important role in sharing the trip demand with automobiles for commuting, especially in many cities in Asia. However, the accident cost of a trip by motorcycle is higher than that of an automobile. This study analyzes the road pricing for the congestion and accident externalities of mixed traffic of automobiles and motorcycles. A model for equilibrium trips with no taxation and that for optimal trips with taxation are explored. The model is then applied to the Tucheng City–Banciao City–Taipei central business district corridor in Taipei metropolitan area. The findings in this case study show that the tax for accident externality is larger than that for congestion externality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Road pricing is increasingly used as an economic tool to decrease the burden of transport externalities. Following the examples of several cities worldwide, on 2nd January, 2008, the city of Milan introduced a charge for accessing the city centre with the aim of curbing air pollution and congestion. The aim of this paper is to evaluate empirically the effect of such a charge on the housing market. By applying a difference-in-differences methodology, I find empirical support for a decrease in housing prices in the coverage area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In the transport policy domain, as in other highly-contested spheres of public policy, it is commonplace for certain policy measures to emerge as promising only to then remain unimplemented. Road pricing is one example of a theoretically well-developed transport policy measure that has proven notoriously difficult to decide and implement. There are however lessons to learn from practice on how to manage barriers to policy formation and implementation also within this field. Drawing on the congestion charging schemes implemented in London in 2003 and Stockholm in 2006, and the Swiss Heavy Vehicle Fee scheme implemented in 2001, this paper identifies a selection of strategies which appear to have supported the policymakers’ capacity to implement effective road pricing schemes. Together, these three examples offer a sound empirical basis from which to infer a set of strategies for the formulation and implementation of politically-contentious road pricing packages—addressing issues of measure combination, flexibility, legitimacy, communication, timing and organisational dynamics. While acknowledging the primacy of broader external and contextual issues, the conclusion is that taking inspiration from the strategies identified in this paper may increase the likelihood of successful policy package processes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Highlights: [•] Content analysis performed for six road pricing policy implementation cases. [•] Cases: Singapore, London, Stockholm, Norwegian cities, Hong Kong and Edinburgh. [•] On average 36 implementation factors were found in each road pricing case. [•] Political and public support are the most prominent generic implementation factors. [•] The importance of case specific implementation factors cannot be underestimated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Willingness-to-pay tolls is partly driven by direct benefits of tolls. [•] Willingness-to-pay tolls is partly driven by the relative costs of tolls. [•] Willingness-to-pay tolls is partly motivated by community concerns. [•] Willingness-to-pay tolls is partly motivated by political and environmental beliefs. [•] This model may apply in Europe as well as the United States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Public opposition is a major barrier to implementation of transport taxes. [•] We test a model of public support across three transport taxes. [•] The three taxes are fuel taxes, road pricing and parking fees. [•] The model performs well in explaining support across the taxes. [•] Perceived effectiveness, regressiveness and self-interest are important predictors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] We empirically analyze the objectivity of media in reporting road pricing policy debate. [•] The analysis shows that the Dutch media is not objective. [•] The Dutch media is a policy actor in the policy debate. [•] All newspapers adopt different policy positions (e.g. positive or negative). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Several international studies have analyzed the acceptability of road pricing schemes by means of an attitude survey in combination with the results of a stated choice experiment using both a descriptive analysis and a discrete-choice model with binary choice (“accept” or “not accept” the toll). However, the use of hybrid discrete choice models constitutes an innovative alternative for integrating subjective attitudes and perceptions deriving from the survey of attitudes with the more objective variables from the stated choice experiment. This paper analyzes the results of applying these models to measure the acceptability of interurban road pricing among different groups of stakeholders (road freight and passenger operators, highway concessionaires, and associations of private car users) with qualitatively significant opinions on road pricing measures. Our results show that hybrid models are better suited to explaining the acceptability of a road pricing scheme by different groups of stakeholders than a separate analysis of the survey of attitudes and a discrete-choice model applied on a stated choice experiment. A particular finding was that the strong psycho-social latent variable of the perception of fairness explains the rejection or acceptance of a toll scheme by road stakeholders. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This study investigates the determinants of public acceptability of road pricing and environmental taxation policies. The strength and direction of causal paths between psychological determinants and the acceptability of these policies are measured with survey data from students in New Jersey, USA and London. The estimated models show that a number of well-established psychological determinants provide an explanation for the acceptability of both policies and in both locations despite various differences in the policy scenarios. Scenario fairness appears to be the most important direct determinant of acceptability in both countries. We further verify the effect of “specific trust in government” on scenario fairness and other direct determinants that indicate the important role of government performance for achieving acceptability for these measures. Our findings further suggest that awareness of wider environmental issues, such as climate change, can lead to the support of specific sustainable transport policies, such as road pricing, which do not address climate change issues directly. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Reducing traffic-related problems is an important issue that requires changes in travel behavior. It is argued that road pricing is an effective tool but that it would be more effective if charges are differentiated. A laboratory experiment employing a heterogeneous sample (n =155) examined effects of differentiated road pricing schemes on understanding and behavioral change intentions. The results show that difficulties are experienced in calculating the charges for road pricing schemes differentiated with respect to both place and time. Suggesting learning effects, if presented with degree of differentiation gradually increasing compared to random orders, the highly differentiated schemes were evaluated faster, as more comprehensible, and perceived difficulty decreased. Elderly were less flexible than young people in indicating how they would respond, women were more flexible than men, and frequent drivers less flexible than non-frequent drivers. A distance-based road pricing scheme with a fixed charge per kilometer was on average ranked highest on preference compared to several other conceivable road pricing alternatives. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Traffic congestion and the policies used to combat it have been studied extensively. One area which has received less attention is the secondary impacts of such policies. This paper uses a micro-simulation framework to study the effect on labour markets of road pricing. The key benefit of our chosen methodology is that it allows a simultaneous consideration of both commuting and migration decisions. We show that while welfare gains can be achieved through optimal charging, this may come at the price of decreased integration. This may manifest through either greater centralisation tendencies in population, or through unemployment disparities between regions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The objective of this study is to examine the effect of road pricing on people’s tendency to adapt their current travel behavior. To this end, the relationship between changes in activity-travel behavior on the one hand and public acceptability and its most important determinants on the other are investigated by means of a stated adaptation experiment. Using a two-stage hierarchical model, it was found that behavioral changes themselves are not dependent on the perceived acceptability of road pricing itself, and that only a small amount of the variability in the behavioral changes were explained by socio-cognitive factors. The lesson for policy makers is that road pricing charges must surpass a minimum threshold in order to entice changes in activity-travel behavior and that the benefits of road pricing should be clearly communicated, taking into account the needs and abilities of different types of travelers. Secondly, earlier findings concerning the acceptability of push measures were validated, supporting transferability of results. In line with other studies, effectiveness, fairness and personal norm all had a significant direct impact on perceived acceptability. Finally, the relevance of using latent factors rather than aggregate indicators was underlined. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Spitsmijden, peak avoidance in Dutch, is the largest systematic effort to date to study, in the field, the potential of rewards as a policy mean for changing commuter behavior. A 13week field study was organized in The Netherlands with the purpose of longitudinally investigating the impacts of rewards on commuter behavior. Different levels and types of rewards were applied and behavior was tracked with state-of-the art detection equipment. Based on the collected data, which included also pre and post-test measurements, a mixed discrete choice model was estimated. The results suggest that rewards can be effective tools in changing commuting behavior. Specifically rewards reduce the shares of rush-hour driving, shift driving to off-peak times and increase the shares of public transport, cycling and working from home. Mediating factors include socio-demographic characteristics, scheduling constraints and work time flexibility, habitual behavior, attitudes to commuting alternatives, the availability of travel information and even the weather. The success of this study has encouraged adoption of rewards, as additional policy tools, to alleviate congestion, especially during temporary road closures. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Singapore’s Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) system involves time-variable charges which are intended to spread the morning traffic peak. The charges are revised every three months and thus induce regular motorists to re-think their travel decisions. ERP traffic data, captured by the system, provides a valuable source of information for studying motorists’ travel behaviour. This paper proposes a new modelling methodology for using these data to forecast short-term impacts of rate adjustment on peak period traffic volumes. Separate models are developed for different categories of vehicles which are segmented according to their demand elasticity with respect to road pricing. A method is proposed for estimating the maximum likelihood value of preferred arrival time (PAT) for each vehicle’s arrivals at a particular ERP gantry under different charging conditions. Iterative procedures are used in both model calibration and application. The proposed approach was tested using traffic datasets recorded in 2003 at a gantry located on Singapore’s Central Expressway (CTE). The model calibration and validation show satisfactory results. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Road pricing policies are gaining prominence in EU countries. These policies have positive impacts leading to mobility patterns which are socially and environmentally more desirable, but they also have negative impacts. One negative impact is to be found in regional accessibility, due to the increase in generalized transport costs. This study presents a methodology based on accessibility indicators and GIS to assess the accessibility impacts of a road pricing policy. The methodology was tested for the Spain’s road network considering two road pricing scenarios. It enables not only the more penalized regions to be identified but also negative road pricing spillover effects between regions. These effects are measured in terms of accessibility changes occurring in one region produced by charges implemented in another region. Finally, the study of accessibility disparities (by calculating inequality indexes for each of the scenarios considered), provides policymakers with useful information regarding the impact of road pricing policies from the point of view of territorial cohesion. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this paper, we investigate the impact of travel costs, in particular toll costs, on the residential location choice of households, using a stated choice survey. Within the stated choice experiment, car drivers that frequently face traffic congestion, traded-off several trip-related (including toll costs) and house/location-related factors in their decision where to locate. If we look at the influence of different variables, toll and fuel costs seem to be important. Respondents are more sensitive to travel costs (i.e. toll and fuel costs) than to equally high (monthly) housing costs. Travel time appears to play a less important role, as indicated by a low value of time (VOT). In addition, location-related factors, such as the type of location and the number of bedrooms, turn out to be important factors as well. It can be concluded that respondents generally speaking prefer to pay higher housing costs and accept longer travel times to avoid (high) travel costs. Finally, if we look at the difference in preferences in relation to toll and fuel cost, we can conclude that toll costs are valued more negatively than fuel costs, although the differences are small. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Starting from January 2008 Milan implemented a charging scheme to enter an 8km2 area of the city centre. The term used to denote the scheme is Ecopass, conveying the stated political objective of the scheme: a pass to improve the quality of the urban environment (ECO). The charge depends on the Euro emission standard of the vehicle. The paper illustrates the main features and impacts of the Milan Ecopass scheme, and presents a preliminary cost–benefit analysis. The scheme has been effective in curbing not only pollution emissions, but also congestion, and the result has been achieved with low implementation costs and without major political opposition. The cost–benefits analysis presents an overall net benefit. The identification of the winners and losers of the policy is conditioned by penalty payments. Without including the penalties, the surface public transport users and the society at large are the main winners, whereas car and especially freight vehicle users are net losers. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The effect of the application of advanced transport information system (ATIS) and road pricing is studied in a transportation system under non-recurrent congestion. A stochastic network deterministic user equilibrium model (SNDUE) with elastic demand is formulated and used to evaluate the welfare and private impacts of different market penetrations of ATIS, together with road pricing for a simple network. Both marginal first-best road pricing and a second-best fixed road pricing are considered. The incentives of private users to use ATIS are analyzed and the characteristics of optimum tolls as a function of ATIS market penetration are shown. We conclude that ATIS is an efficient and necessary tool to reduce the effects of non-recurrent incidents in a transportation network, especially when non-recurrent congestion causes a significant deterioration of operational conditions of the network. If the impact of non-recurrent incidents on free flow costs is small or is reduced only to congestion effects, the use of road pricing would be more efficient. Social benefits obtained when jointly implementing ATIS and road pricing are practically the same whether first-best or second-best road pricing is used. Considering the private costs perceived by the network users, and the benefits experienced by equipped users, the maximum level of market penetration achieved could be limited because private benefits disappear after certain market penetration is obtained. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper presents a cost–benefit analysis of the Stockholm congestion charging system, based on the observed rather than on the model-forecasted data. The most important data sources are travel time and traffic flow measurements made in the year before the charges were introduced (during April 2005) and during the first spring with the charges (during April 2006, 4 months after the charges were introduced). Using matrix calibration, effects on the non-observed link flows and travel times are extrapolated, enabling us to calculate the social value of changes in travel times and travel costs. Impacts on traffic safety and emissions are calculated using standard Swedish CBA relationships. The system is shown to yield a significant social surplus, well enough to cover both investment and operating costs, provided that it is kept for a reasonable lifetime: investment and startup costs are “recovered” in terms of social benefits in around 4 years. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The starting point of this paper is to consider that there is no general answer to the question of the equity of urban road pricing. We therefore simulate and compare the distributional effects on commuters of nine toll scenarios for Paris, assuming that utility is nonlinear in income. We show that the distributional pattern across income groups depends crucially on the level of traffic reduction induced by tolling. Stringent tolls are more favourable to low-income motorists. Equity effects also vary with toll design. Compared to a reference scenario which uniformly charges all motorists driving within Paris, an inbound cordon toll is detrimental to low-incomes. Conversely, granting a rebate to low CO2 emission cars slightly improves their situation while an exemption for Paris residents is neutral. Surprisingly, it matters little for social equity whether toll revenues are allocated to all commuters or solely to public transport users. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper discusses the location decision of an elevated new road in a corridor. The distribution of residents is uniformly located along this corridor and each individual makes trips to the CBD at the end-point of the corridor. Trip demand is elastic and dependent on the cost of a car trip that incorporates congestion cost. The government is assumed to build a new elevated road on this corridor to reduce the traffic congestion, but it has to decide where to locate the entrance of this elevated road. The optimal location of the new elevated road demon the following factors: (1) the set of tolls for the new road and original road; (2) the demand parameters; (3) the travel cost parameters; and (4) the construction cost parameters. We explore the effects of determining the location of an elevated road entrance and the tolls of road pricing on a simple spatial model with a welfare-maximizing objective of the government. The result also shows that, for a given set of tolls, the ratio of taking the elevated road is monotonically decreasing as the location of the entrance is set outward from the CBD. The socially optimal location of the entrance and the second-best toll are obtained from a set of numerical examples. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper discusses the economic conditions needed to move urban freight delivery traffic to the off-hours, and the effectiveness of alternative policies to foster such move in competitive markets. Such policies seem to be needed because the empirical evidence indicates that in urban freight competitive markets freight road pricing may not be the most effective way to move truck traffic out of the congested hours. This is because: the decision about delivery time is jointly made between the carrier and the receiver; the carriers have great difficulties passing toll costs to receivers; and, in the few cases where toll costs could be passed, the price signal reaching receivers is of no consequence compared to receivers’ incremental costs of off-hour deliveries. Three different policies are considered: freight road pricing combined with financial incentives to receivers willing to accept off-hour deliveries, freight road pricing, and laissez faire conditions (neither freight road pricing, nor financial incentives). The paper uses an economic formulation to estimate the impact a policy would have on the agents’ profits, which provides insight into how the agents would react, and leads to a set of necessary conditions for off-hour deliveries to be feasible. Two cases of industry structure are considered: independent operations (carrier and receivers are separate companies) and integrated operations (carrier and receiver part of the same company). The particular case of large traffic generators, with central delivery stations is also discussed. The analyses of integrated carrier–receiver operations indicate that, because of the centralized decision making process, they could transfer all or none of the delivery operations to the off-hours. This enables them to take full advantage of the carrier savings during the off-hours, that are at a maximum when all deliveries in a tour are transferred to the off-hours. The analyses of independent carrier–receiver operations conclude that the decision about delivery time is the outcome of the interaction between carriers and receivers as part of the Battle of the Sexes game, where the receivers play the dominant role. The paper highlights that, because of the competitive nature of the urban delivery industry, rates tend to be set at marginal costs. This, in turn, prevents carriers from transferring toll surcharges to customers because the tolls are, generally, a fixed cost that does not enter into the marginal cost. As a result, receivers in competitive markers are not likely to receive any price signal; that are only possible in the industry segments in which the carriers enjoy oligopoly power. Equally significant is that, even in those cases, where the carrier could pass toll surcharges to their customers (9% in New York City), the price signal is of no consequence when compared to the incremental costs to receivers associated with off-hour deliveries. To overcome this, the paper suggests the use of tax incentives to receivers willing to accept off-hour deliveries, combined with freight road pricing as a revenue generation mechanism. The analyses of large traffic generators reveal that these facilities represent an ideal target for off-hour delivery policies because they could handle off-hour deliveries at a minimal incremental cost, which is a consequence of the scale economies associated with handling deliveries for multiple businesses. The paper highlights that, because of marginal cost pricing, toll schemes based on distance and/or time spent in a tolled region will enable the carriers to pass toll costs to the receivers, as the tolls would enter in the marginal costs and therefore freight rates. This, however, would not resolve the issue pertaining to the insignificance of the price signal reaching receivers relative to the incremental costs associated to moving to the off-hours. The analyses of the necessary conditions for the policies considered in the paper indicate that the most potent stimulus is provided by freight road pricing in combination with financial incentives to receivers. The paper concludes that neither freight road pricing by itself, nor laissez faire, are likely to achieve the goal of inducing a significant switch of truck traffic to the off-hours. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: There is a potential tension between the theoretical desirability of highly differentiated tariff structures and the ability of consumers to respond effectively to them. Evidence from studies of road pricing schemes and tolls, from other transport modes, and from other industries (notably telecommunications), is reviewed and its transferability assessed. Relevant models of human decision making (notably Prospect Theory, Risk Aversion, Ambiguity Avoidance and Bounded Rationality) are explored, and the use and efficiency of heuristics to deal with complex situations is discussed. It is concluded that people have a strong preference for simple tariffs but that they are able to respond to quite complex tariffs provided that they have a clear and logical structure. However, people’s difficulties in estimating distance will severely limit the accuracy of their estimates of distance-based charges and their response to complex pricing signals will be influenced by their attitude to the fairness of the charge. These conclusions are summarised in a general model of response to complex prices. The paper, which reports and extends a study conducted for the UK Department for Transport, concludes by considering the implications for the design and performance of road pricing schemes (an inherent problem being that the theoretically optimum, first-best, pricing structure might be so complicated and dynamically variable that it would be unreasonable to expect road users to predict, let alone respond to, the prices on any given road at any given time – a simpler pricing structure might therefore yield a better overall result). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper compares performances of cordon- and area-road pricing regimes on their social welfare benefit and equity impact. The key difference between the two systems is that the cordon charges travellers per crossing whereas the area scheme charges the travellers for an entry permit (e.g. per day). For the area licensing scheme, travellers may decide to pay or not to pay the toll depending on the proportion between their travel costs for the whole trip-chains during a valid period of the area license and the toll level. A static trip-chain equilibrium based model is adopted in the paper to provide a better evaluation of the area-based tolls on trip-chain demands. The paper proposes a modified Gini coefficient taking in account assumptions of revenue re-distribution to measure the spatial equity impact. The model is tested with the case study of the Utsunomiya city in Japan. The results demonstrate a higher level of optimal tolls and social welfare benefits of the area-based schemes compared to those of the cordon-based schemes. Different sizes of the charging boundary have significant influences on the scheme benefits. The tests also show an interesting result on the non-effect of the boundary design (for both charging types) on their equity impacts. However, when comparing between charging regimes it is clear that the area schemes generate more inequitable results. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Interest at the political level in congestion charging is gaining pace as cities struggle with ways to reduce the effects of growing traffic congestion on the liveability of cities. Despite a long history of promotion of a wide array of travel demand management (TDM) initiatives, very few have had a noticeable impact on the levels of traffic on the road networks of metropolitan areas. TDM success in this context has almost become ‘band-aid’ in the absence of a pricing strategy that not only promotes efficient use of the system but also hypothecates revenues to support essential complementary infrastructure and services such as public transport. This paper takes a look at the stream of pricing consciousness that is surfacing around the world. Although very few jurisdictions have implemented congestion charging, or any form of efficient variable car and truck user charging, the winds of change are well in place. The adage “it is not a matter of if but of when” seems to be the prevailing view. Our overview of global trends in positioning the debate and hopefully follow-through commitment to implementation provides a backdrop to papers submitted for this special issue on travel demand management. The predominance of papers on pricing is indicative of the priority that must be given to efficient charging and revenue disbursement. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We tested the opposite predictions of reactance and dissonance theory, two popular psychological theories, with regard to the responses of car drivers to the introduction of the road pricing. Reactance theory predicts that persons who are convinced that a toll will come are more opposed than less convinced persons. In contrast, dissonance theory expects that convinced persons are more in favour of road pricing than less convinced persons. Aim of the study was to test which theory is more appropriate to explain user reactions towards the toll introduction. We experimentally manipulated the perceived likelihood (low, middle, high and a control condition) of a toll introduction for private cars on German motorways (N =140 car drivers). In accordance with the predictions of dissonance theory, results revealed clearly that convinced persons about a definite introduction of road pricing developed more positive attitudes towards road pricing than less convinced persons, i.e., the strength of conviction about the introduction of road pricing has a strong effect on the attitudinal evaluation of road pricing. The implications are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In the US, there is a long tradition of toll roads, beginning with the Lancaster Turnpike that was built at the end of the 18th century connecting Philadelphia and Lancaster. There are currently more than 300 toll facilities in the US, which is probably the largest number of toll facilities in the world. These facilities represent a wide range of conditions, from hypercongested facilities in large metropolitan areas such as New York City to toll highways in rural areas. The toll structures are equally diverse, ranging from multi-tier price structures with frequent user, carpool, and time of day discounts; to simpler structures in which the only differentiation is made on the basis of the number of axles per vehicle. The toll rates are typically set by the agencies that operate or own the toll facilities. The rules or formulas by which these tolls are determined are not generally available to the public, though it is safe to say that toll decisions are made taking into account technical considerations, as well as the all important criterion of political acceptability. However, data on toll rates and how they change by vehicle types and by some other attributes are readily available. The overall objective of this paper is to analyze the toll data from various facilities across the US to gain insight into the overall factors affecting the tolls. A more specific objective is to assess—though in a rather approximate fashion—if the tolls by vehicle type, relative to each other, are appropriate and consistent with economic theory. This is achieved by comparing tolls to approximate indicators of road space consumption and pavement deterioration. The literature review confirmed that this is the first time such research has been conducted which is an important first step toward an analysis of the efficiency of current toll policies. The analyses in this paper are based on a random sample of all toll facilities across the US. The toll dataset, which include toll rates for passenger cars, busses, and three different truck types, is assembled mainly from the available information on the web sites of various toll agencies. After cleaning the data, the authors used econometric modeling to estimate a set of ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models that express tolls as functions of independent variables. Three families of models were estimated: linear models, models based on expansions of Taylor series, and models based on piece-wise linear approximations to non-linear effects. The resulting models were analyzed to identify the salient features of current toll policies towards different vehicle types. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper describes the key findings from a major research project aimed at assessing the impacts of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey’s time of day pricing initiative on the behavior of commercial carriers. The paper, believed by the authors to be the first comprehensive study on the subject, highlights key implications for road pricing policy. One of the most interesting findings is that carriers respond to time of day pricing by implementing multi-dimensional responses involving Productivity increases, Cost transfers, and Change in facility usage. This implies a more nuanced response than suggested by micro-economic theory, which would only predict a change in facility usage. In fact, no carrier was found to have responded by implementing only changes in facility usage, which leads to the authors to believe that this is a last resort alternative. In terms of numerical importance, three combinations of strategy groups represent almost 90% of the cases: Productivity increases (42.79%), followed by Changes in facility usage and Cost transfers (27.60%) and Productivity increases and Changes in facility usage and Cost transfers (19.32%). The fact that some of these responses impact only the carrier (i.e., Productivity increases) while others mostly impact the receivers (Changes in facility usage and Cost transfers) lead the authors to believe that the nature of the response is determined by the balance of power between carriers and receivers. If carriers dominate the relationship, then it is likely that policies that mostly impact receivers are implemented; otherwise, the carriers have no choice but implementing strategies that help them cope with the impacts of pricing without impacting their customers, i.e., productivity increases. In this context, the authors’ conjecture is that carriers consider changes in facility usage to be a very disruptive alternative that forces them—and more importantly their customers—to alter their shipping/delivery patterns. It should be pointed out that, although carriers stand to benefit from working during the off-peak hours, they could only do so if their customers are willing to work during the off-peak hours. The data indicate that 36 carriers (20.2%) changed behavior because of the time of day pricing initiative. This number includes 17 carriers (9.0%) that reacted by increasing shipping charges to receivers, which illustrates the need to find out more about how receivers reacted to the time of day pricing initiative. If the carriers that only increased shipment charges are excluded, 15.3% of carriers changed behavior because of time of day pricing. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper presents an application of the continuum traffic equilibrium model for the cordon-based congestion pricing problem. The traffic equilibrium model treats densely spaced roads as a continuum over which commuters are continuously dispersed. Suppose in the morning peak-hour, all commuters travel to the central business district (CBD) by taking their individual shortest routes. Their user-optimal route choice behavior, with or without toll pricing, can be formulated as a calculus of variations problem and solved efficiently by the modern finite element method. By plotting the numerical results in a two-dimensional space in the form of contour lines of travel cost to the CBD, one can intuitively identify the level of congestion and the external cost anywhere in the city. Hence, the continuum model and two-dimensional numerical representation allow a traffic planner to select easily one or multiple toll cordon(s) in the city and evaluate the impact of cordon toll charges on the resultant social welfare and user benefits. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A dynamic ‘car-following’ extension of the conventional economic model of traffic congestion is presented, which predicts the average cost function for trips in stationary states to be significantly different from the conventional average cost function derived from the speed-flow function. When applied to a homogeneous road, the model reproduces the same stationary state equilibria as the conventional model, including the hypercongested ones. However, stability analysis shows that the latter are dynamically unstable. The average cost function for stationary state traffic coincides with the conventional function for non-hypercongested traffic, but rises vertically at the road’s capacity due to queuing, instead of bending backwards. When extending the model to include an upstream road segment, it predicts that such queuing will occur under hypercongested conditions, while the general shape of the average cost function for full trips does not change, implying that hypercongestion will not occur on the downstream road segment. These qualitative predictions are verified empirically using traffic data from a Dutch bottleneck. Finally, it is shown that reduced-form average cost functions, that relate the sum of average travel cost and average schedule delay costs to the number of users in a dynamic equilibrium, certainly need not have the intuitive convex shape, but may very well be concave – despite the fact that the underlying speed-flow function may be convex. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: With increasing worldwide interest in the application of urban road pricing, the experience of Singapore can be very useful. Under the Singapore Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) system, charges for entering the city centre and using some expressways vary by time of day and are being periodically revised in order to maintain traffic speeds within the desirable bands. Traffic response to these revisions shows that demand elasticity with respect to pricing is higher for cars than for other vehicles and higher for expressways than for the city centre cordon. It is also lower in the morning peak and higher in the afternoon. A discrete choice based model of motorist response to pricing is proposed for a single toll point with peak period variable pricing. The choices considered include the time interval of travel and re-routing to avoid the toll. The model was calibrated for one expressway and two arterial roads using only traffic volume data collected before and after ERP introduction. The model reflected well the peak spreading effect of variable road pricing and the penalties for rescheduling and re-routing of trips. In general, the Singapore experience suggests that variable pricing is an effective method of controlling congestion. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper develops congestion theory and congestion pricing theory from its micro-foundations, the interaction of two or more vehicles. Using game theory, with a two-player game it is shown that the emergence of congestion depends on the players’ relative valuations of early arrival, late arrival, and journey delay. Congestion pricing can be used as a cooperation mechanism to minimize total costs (if returned to the players). The analysis is then extended to the case of the three-player game, which illustrates congestion as a negative externality imposed on players who do not themselves contribute to it. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This note rectifies an error in the paper by on highway pricing and capacity choice, and shows that under essentially the same assumptions as for and , self-financing applies to a general network. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]